\chapter{Simplification}

 \label{chap:simplification}

 \index{simplification|(}

 This chapter describes Isabelle's generic simplification package.  It performs

 conditional and unconditional rewriting and uses contextual information

 (`local assumptions').  It provides several general hooks, which can provide

 automatic case splits during rewriting, for example.  The simplifier is

 already set up for many of Isabelle's logics: FOL, ZF, HOL, HOLCF.

 The first section is a quick introduction to the simplifier that

 should be sufficient to get started.  The later sections explain more

 advanced features.

 \section{Simplification for dummies}

 \label{sec:simp-for-dummies}

 Basic use of the simplifier is particularly easy because each theory

 is equipped with sensible default information controlling the rewrite

 process --- namely the implicit {\em current

   simpset}\index{simpset!current}.  A suite of simple commands is

 provided that refer to the implicit simpset of the current theory

 context.

 \begin{warn}

   Make sure that you are working within the correct theory context.

   Executing proofs interactively, or loading them from ML files

   without associated theories may require setting the current theory

   manually via the \ttindex{context} command.

 \end{warn}

 \subsection{Simplification tactics} \label{sec:simp-for-dummies-tacs}

 \begin{ttbox}

 Simp_tac          : int -> tactic

 Asm_simp_tac      : int -> tactic

 Full_simp_tac     : int -> tactic

 Asm_full_simp_tac : int -> tactic

 trace_simp        : bool ref \hfill{\bf initially false}

 debug_simp        : bool ref \hfill{\bf initially false}

 \end{ttbox}

 \begin{ttdescription}

 \item[\ttindexbold{Simp_tac} $i$] simplifies subgoal~$i$ using the

   current simpset.  It may solve the subgoal completely if it has

   become trivial, using the simpset's solver tactic.

 \item[\ttindexbold{Asm_simp_tac}]\index{assumptions!in simplification}

   is like \verb$Simp_tac$, but extracts additional rewrite rules from

   the local assumptions.

 \item[\ttindexbold{Full_simp_tac}] is like \verb$Simp_tac$, but also

   simplifies the assumptions (without using the assumptions to

   simplify each other or the actual goal).

 \item[\ttindexbold{Asm_full_simp_tac}] is like \verb$Asm_simp_tac$,

   but also simplifies the assumptions. In particular, assumptions can

   simplify each other.

 \footnote{\texttt{Asm_full_simp_tac} used to process the assumptions from

   left to right. For backwards compatibilty reasons only there is now

   \texttt{Asm_lr_simp_tac} that behaves like the old \texttt{Asm_full_simp_tac}.}

 \item[set \ttindexbold{trace_simp};] makes the simplifier output internal

   operations.  This includes rewrite steps, but also bookkeeping like

   modifications of the simpset.

 \item[set \ttindexbold{debug_simp};] makes the simplifier output some extra

   information about internal operations.  This includes any attempted

   invocation of simplification procedures.

 \end{ttdescription}

 \medskip

 As an example, consider the theory of arithmetic in HOL.  The (rather trivial)

 goal $0 + (x + 0) = x + 0 + 0$ can be solved by a single call of

 \texttt{Simp_tac} as follows:

 \begin{ttbox}

 context Arith.thy;

 Goal "0 + (x + 0) = x + 0 + 0";

 {\out  1. 0 + (x + 0) = x + 0 + 0}

 by (Simp_tac 1);

 {\out Level 1}

 {\out 0 + (x + 0) = x + 0 + 0}

 {\out No subgoals!}

 \end{ttbox}

 The simplifier uses the current simpset of \texttt{Arith.thy}, which

 contains suitable theorems like $\Var{n}+0 = \Var{n}$ and $0+\Var{n} =

 \Var{n}$.

 \medskip In many cases, assumptions of a subgoal are also needed in

 the simplification process.  For example, \texttt{x = 0 ==> x + x = 0}

 is solved by \texttt{Asm_simp_tac} as follows:

 \begin{ttbox}

 {\out  1. x = 0 ==> x + x = 0}

 by (Asm_simp_tac 1);

 \end{ttbox}

 \medskip \texttt{Asm_full_simp_tac} is the most powerful of this quartet

 of tactics but may also loop where some of the others terminate.  For

 example,

 \begin{ttbox}

 {\out  1. ALL x. f x = g (f (g x)) ==> f 0 = f 0 + 0}

 \end{ttbox}

 is solved by \texttt{Simp_tac}, but \texttt{Asm_simp_tac} and {\tt

   Asm_full_simp_tac} loop because the rewrite rule $f\,\Var{x} =

 g\,(f\,(g\,\Var{x}))$ extracted from the assumption does not

 terminate.  Isabelle notices certain simple forms of nontermination,

 but not this one. Because assumptions may simplify each other, there can be

 very subtle cases of nontermination. For example, invoking

 {\tt Asm_full_simp_tac} on

 \begin{ttbox}

 {\out  1. [| P (f x); y = x; f x = f y |] ==> Q}

 \end{ttbox}

 gives rise to the infinite reduction sequence

 \[

 P\,(f\,x) \stackrel{f\,x = f\,y}{\longmapsto} P\,(f\,y) \stackrel{y = x}{\longmapsto}

 P\,(f\,x) \stackrel{f\,x = f\,y}{\longmapsto} \cdots

 \]

 whereas applying the same tactic to

 \begin{ttbox}

 {\out  1. [| y = x; f x = f y; P (f x) |] ==> Q}

 \end{ttbox}

 terminates.

 \medskip

 Using the simplifier effectively may take a bit of experimentation.

 Set the \verb$trace_simp$\index{tracing!of simplification} flag to get

 a better idea of what is going on.  The resulting output can be

 enormous, especially since invocations of the simplifier are often

 nested (e.g.\ when solving conditions of rewrite rules).

 \subsection{Modifying the current simpset}

 \begin{ttbox}

 Addsimps    : thm list -> unit

 Delsimps    : thm list -> unit

 Addsimprocs : simproc list -> unit

 Delsimprocs : simproc list -> unit

 Addcongs    : thm list -> unit

 Delcongs    : thm list -> unit

 Addsplits   : thm list -> unit

 Delsplits   : thm list -> unit

 \end{ttbox}

 Depending on the theory context, the \texttt{Add} and \texttt{Del}

 functions manipulate basic components of the associated current

 simpset.  Internally, all rewrite rules have to be expressed as

 (conditional) meta-equalities.  This form is derived automatically

 from object-level equations that are supplied by the user.  Another

 source of rewrite rules are \emph{simplification procedures}, that is

 \ML\ functions that produce suitable theorems on demand, depending on

 the current redex.  Congruences are a more advanced feature; see

 {\S}\ref{sec:simp-congs}.

 \begin{ttdescription}

 \item[\ttindexbold{Addsimps} $thms$;] adds rewrite rules derived from

   $thms$ to the current simpset.

 \item[\ttindexbold{Delsimps} $thms$;] deletes rewrite rules derived

   from $thms$ from the current simpset.

 \item[\ttindexbold{Addsimprocs} $procs$;] adds simplification

   procedures $procs$ to the current simpset.

 \item[\ttindexbold{Delsimprocs} $procs$;] deletes simplification

   procedures $procs$ from the current simpset.

 \item[\ttindexbold{Addcongs} $thms$;] adds congruence rules to the

   current simpset.

 \item[\ttindexbold{Delcongs} $thms$;] deletes congruence rules from the

   current simpset.

 \item[\ttindexbold{Addsplits} $thms$;] adds splitting rules to the

   current simpset.

 \item[\ttindexbold{Delsplits} $thms$;] deletes splitting rules from the

   current simpset.

 \end{ttdescription}

 When a new theory is built, its implicit simpset is initialized by the union

 of the respective simpsets of its parent theories.  In addition, certain

 theory definition constructs (e.g.\ \ttindex{datatype} and \ttindex{primrec}

 in HOL) implicitly augment the current simpset.  Ordinary definitions are not

 added automatically!

 It is up the user to manipulate the current simpset further by

 explicitly adding or deleting theorems and simplification procedures.

 \medskip

 Good simpsets are hard to design.  Rules that obviously simplify,

 like $\Var{n}+0 = \Var{n}$, should be added to the current simpset right after

 they have been proved.  More specific ones (such as distributive laws, which

 duplicate subterms) should be added only for specific proofs and deleted

 afterwards.  Conversely, sometimes a rule needs

 to be removed for a certain proof and restored afterwards.  The need of

 frequent additions or deletions may indicate a badly designed

 simpset.

 \begin{warn}

   The union of the parent simpsets (as described above) is not always

   a good starting point for the new theory.  If some ancestors have

   deleted simplification rules because they are no longer wanted,

   while others have left those rules in, then the union will contain

   the unwanted rules.  After this union is formed, changes to 

   a parent simpset have no effect on the child simpset.

 \end{warn}

 \section{Simplification sets}\index{simplification sets} 

 The simplifier is controlled by information contained in {\bf

   simpsets}.  These consist of several components, including rewrite

 rules, simplification procedures, congruence rules, and the subgoaler,

 solver and looper tactics.  The simplifier should be set up with

 sensible defaults so that most simplifier calls specify only rewrite

 rules or simplification procedures.  Experienced users can exploit the

 other components to streamline proofs in more sophisticated manners.

 \subsection{Inspecting simpsets}

 \begin{ttbox}

 print_ss : simpset -> unit

 rep_ss   : simpset -> \{mss        : meta_simpset, 

                        subgoal_tac: simpset  -> int -> tactic,

                        loop_tacs  : (string * (int -> tactic))list,

                        finish_tac : solver list,

                 unsafe_finish_tac : solver list\}

 \end{ttbox}

 \begin{ttdescription}

 \item[\ttindexbold{print_ss} $ss$;] displays the printable contents of

   simpset $ss$.  This includes the rewrite rules and congruences in

   their internal form expressed as meta-equalities.  The names of the

   simplification procedures and the patterns they are invoked on are

   also shown.  The other parts, functions and tactics, are

   non-printable.

 \item[\ttindexbold{rep_ss} $ss$;] decomposes $ss$ as a record of its internal 

   components, namely the meta_simpset, the subgoaler, the loop, and the safe

   and unsafe solvers.

 \end{ttdescription}

 \subsection{Building simpsets}

 \begin{ttbox}

 empty_ss : simpset

 merge_ss : simpset * simpset -> simpset

 \end{ttbox}

 \begin{ttdescription}

 \item[\ttindexbold{empty_ss}] is the empty simpset.  This is not very useful

   under normal circumstances because it doesn't contain suitable tactics

   (subgoaler etc.).  When setting up the simplifier for a particular

   object-logic, one will typically define a more appropriate ``almost empty''

   simpset.  For example, in HOL this is called \ttindexbold{HOL_basic_ss}.

 \item[\ttindexbold{merge_ss} ($ss@1$, $ss@2$)] merges simpsets $ss@1$

   and $ss@2$ by building the union of their respective rewrite rules,

   simplification procedures and congruences.  The other components

   (tactics etc.) cannot be merged, though; they are taken from either

   simpset\footnote{Actually from $ss@1$, but it would unwise to count

     on that.}.

 \end{ttdescription}

 \subsection{Rewrite rules}

 \begin{ttbox}

 addsimps : simpset * thm list -> simpset \hfill{\bf infix 4}

 delsimps : simpset * thm list -> simpset \hfill{\bf infix 4}

 \end{ttbox}

 \index{rewrite rules|(} Rewrite rules are theorems expressing some

 form of equality, for example:

 \begin{eqnarray*}

   Suc(\Var{m}) + \Var{n} &=&      \Var{m} + Suc(\Var{n}) \\

   \Var{P}\conj\Var{P}    &\bimp&  \Var{P} \\

   \Var{A} \un \Var{B} &\equiv& \{x.x\in \Var{A} \disj x\in \Var{B}\}

 \end{eqnarray*}

 Conditional rewrites such as $\Var{m}<\Var{n} \Imp \Var{m}/\Var{n} =

 0$ are also permitted; the conditions can be arbitrary formulas.

 Internally, all rewrite rules are translated into meta-equalities,

 theorems with conclusion $lhs \equiv rhs$.  Each simpset contains a

 function for extracting equalities from arbitrary theorems.  For

 example, $\neg(\Var{x}\in \{\})$ could be turned into $\Var{x}\in \{\}

 \equiv False$.  This function can be installed using

 \ttindex{setmksimps} but only the definer of a logic should need to do

 this; see {\S}\ref{sec:setmksimps}.  The function processes theorems

 added by \texttt{addsimps} as well as local assumptions.

 \begin{ttdescription}

 \item[$ss$ \ttindexbold{addsimps} $thms$] adds rewrite rules derived

   from $thms$ to the simpset $ss$.

 \item[$ss$ \ttindexbold{delsimps} $thms$] deletes rewrite rules

   derived from $thms$ from the simpset $ss$.

 \end{ttdescription}

 \begin{warn}

   The simplifier will accept all standard rewrite rules: those where

   all unknowns are of base type.  Hence ${\Var{i}+(\Var{j}+\Var{k})} =

   {(\Var{i}+\Var{j})+\Var{k}}$ is OK.

   It will also deal gracefully with all rules whose left-hand sides

   are so-called {\em higher-order patterns}~\cite{nipkow-patterns}.

   \indexbold{higher-order pattern}\indexbold{pattern, higher-order}

   These are terms in $\beta$-normal form (this will always be the case

   unless you have done something strange) where each occurrence of an

   unknown is of the form $\Var{F}(x@1,\dots,x@n)$, where the $x@i$ are

   distinct bound variables. Hence $(\forall x.\Var{P}(x) \land

   \Var{Q}(x)) \bimp (\forall x.\Var{P}(x)) \land (\forall

   x.\Var{Q}(x))$ is also OK, in both directions.

   In some rare cases the rewriter will even deal with quite general

   rules: for example ${\Var{f}(\Var{x})\in range(\Var{f})} = True$

   rewrites $g(a) \in range(g)$ to $True$, but will fail to match

   $g(h(b)) \in range(\lambda x.g(h(x)))$.  However, you can replace

   the offending subterms (in our case $\Var{f}(\Var{x})$, which is not

   a pattern) by adding new variables and conditions: $\Var{y} =

   \Var{f}(\Var{x}) \Imp \Var{y}\in range(\Var{f}) = True$ is

   acceptable as a conditional rewrite rule since conditions can be

   arbitrary terms.

   There is basically no restriction on the form of the right-hand

   sides.  They may not contain extraneous term or type variables,

   though.

 \end{warn}

 \index{rewrite rules|)}

 \subsection{*Simplification procedures}

 \begin{ttbox}

 addsimprocs : simpset * simproc list -> simpset

 delsimprocs : simpset * simproc list -> simpset

 \end{ttbox}

 Simplification procedures are {\ML} objects of abstract type

 \texttt{simproc}.  Basically they are just functions that may produce

 \emph{proven} rewrite rules on demand.  They are associated with

 certain patterns that conceptually represent left-hand sides of

 equations; these are shown by \texttt{print_ss}.  During its

 operation, the simplifier may offer a simplification procedure the

 current redex and ask for a suitable rewrite rule.  Thus rules may be

 specifically fashioned for particular situations, resulting in a more

 powerful mechanism than term rewriting by a fixed set of rules.

 \begin{ttdescription}

 \item[$ss$ \ttindexbold{addsimprocs} $procs$] adds the simplification

   procedures $procs$ to the current simpset.

 \item[$ss$ \ttindexbold{delsimprocs} $procs$] deletes the simplification

   procedures $procs$ from the current simpset.

 \end{ttdescription}

 For example, simplification procedures \ttindexbold{nat_cancel} of

 \texttt{HOL/Arith} cancel common summands and constant factors out of

 several relations of sums over natural numbers.

 Consider the following goal, which after cancelling $a$ on both sides

 contains a factor of $2$.  Simplifying with the simpset of

 \texttt{Arith.thy} will do the cancellation automatically:

 \begin{ttbox}

 {\out 1. x + a + x < y + y + 2 + a + a + a + a + a}

 by (Simp_tac 1);

 {\out 1. x < Suc (a + (a + y))}

 \end{ttbox}

 \subsection{*Congruence rules}\index{congruence rules}\label{sec:simp-congs}

 \begin{ttbox}

 addcongs   : simpset * thm list -> simpset \hfill{\bf infix 4}

 delcongs   : simpset * thm list -> simpset \hfill{\bf infix 4}

 addeqcongs : simpset * thm list -> simpset \hfill{\bf infix 4}

 deleqcongs : simpset * thm list -> simpset \hfill{\bf infix 4}

 \end{ttbox}

 Congruence rules are meta-equalities of the form

 \[ \dots \Imp

    f(\Var{x@1},\ldots,\Var{x@n}) \equiv f(\Var{y@1},\ldots,\Var{y@n}).

 \]

 This governs the simplification of the arguments of~$f$.  For

 example, some arguments can be simplified under additional assumptions:

 \[ \List{\Var{P@1} \bimp \Var{Q@1};\; \Var{Q@1} \Imp \Var{P@2} \bimp \Var{Q@2}}

    \Imp (\Var{P@1} \imp \Var{P@2}) \equiv (\Var{Q@1} \imp \Var{Q@2})

 \]

 Given this rule, the simplifier assumes $Q@1$ and extracts rewrite

 rules from it when simplifying~$P@2$.  Such local assumptions are

 effective for rewriting formulae such as $x=0\imp y+x=y$.  The local

 assumptions are also provided as theorems to the solver; see

 {\S}~\ref{sec:simp-solver} below.

 \begin{ttdescription}

 \item[$ss$ \ttindexbold{addcongs} $thms$] adds congruence rules to the

   simpset $ss$.  These are derived from $thms$ in an appropriate way,

   depending on the underlying object-logic.

 \item[$ss$ \ttindexbold{delcongs} $thms$] deletes congruence rules

   derived from $thms$.

 \item[$ss$ \ttindexbold{addeqcongs} $thms$] adds congruence rules in

   their internal form (conclusions using meta-equality) to simpset

   $ss$.  This is the basic mechanism that \texttt{addcongs} is built

   on.  It should be rarely used directly.

 \item[$ss$ \ttindexbold{deleqcongs} $thms$] deletes congruence rules

   in internal form from simpset $ss$.

 \end{ttdescription}

 \medskip

 Here are some more examples.  The congruence rule for bounded

 quantifiers also supplies contextual information, this time about the

 bound variable:

 \begin{eqnarray*}

   &&\List{\Var{A}=\Var{B};\; 

           \Forall x. x\in \Var{B} \Imp \Var{P}(x) = \Var{Q}(x)} \Imp{} \\

  &&\qquad\qquad

     (\forall x\in \Var{A}.\Var{P}(x)) = (\forall x\in \Var{B}.\Var{Q}(x))

 \end{eqnarray*}

 The congruence rule for conditional expressions can supply contextual

 information for simplifying the arms:

 \[ \List{\Var{p}=\Var{q};~ \Var{q} \Imp \Var{a}=\Var{c};~

          \neg\Var{q} \Imp \Var{b}=\Var{d}} \Imp

    if(\Var{p},\Var{a},\Var{b}) \equiv if(\Var{q},\Var{c},\Var{d})

 \]

 A congruence rule can also {\em prevent\/} simplification of some arguments.

 Here is an alternative congruence rule for conditional expressions:

 \[ \Var{p}=\Var{q} \Imp

    if(\Var{p},\Var{a},\Var{b}) \equiv if(\Var{q},\Var{a},\Var{b})

 \]

 Only the first argument is simplified; the others remain unchanged.

 This can make simplification much faster, but may require an extra case split

 to prove the goal.  

 \subsection{*The subgoaler}\label{sec:simp-subgoaler}

 \begin{ttbox}

 setsubgoaler :

   simpset *  (simpset -> int -> tactic) -> simpset \hfill{\bf infix 4}

 prems_of_ss  : simpset -> thm list

 \end{ttbox}

 The subgoaler is the tactic used to solve subgoals arising out of

 conditional rewrite rules or congruence rules.  The default should be

 simplification itself.  Occasionally this strategy needs to be

 changed.  For example, if the premise of a conditional rule is an

 instance of its conclusion, as in $Suc(\Var{m}) < \Var{n} \Imp \Var{m}

 < \Var{n}$, the default strategy could loop.

 \begin{ttdescription}

 \item[$ss$ \ttindexbold{setsubgoaler} $tacf$] sets the subgoaler of

   $ss$ to $tacf$.  The function $tacf$ will be applied to the current

   simplifier context expressed as a simpset.

 \item[\ttindexbold{prems_of_ss} $ss$] retrieves the current set of

   premises from simplifier context $ss$.  This may be non-empty only

   if the simplifier has been told to utilize local assumptions in the

   first place, e.g.\ if invoked via \texttt{asm_simp_tac}.

 \end{ttdescription}

 As an example, consider the following subgoaler:

 \begin{ttbox}

 fun subgoaler ss =

     assume_tac ORELSE'

     resolve_tac (prems_of_ss ss) ORELSE'

     asm_simp_tac ss;

 \end{ttbox}

 This tactic first tries to solve the subgoal by assumption or by

 resolving with with one of the premises, calling simplification only

 if that fails.

 \subsection{*The solver}\label{sec:simp-solver}

 \begin{ttbox}

 mk_solver  : string -> (thm list -> int -> tactic) -> solver

 setSolver  : simpset * solver -> simpset \hfill{\bf infix 4}

 addSolver  : simpset * solver -> simpset \hfill{\bf infix 4}

 setSSolver : simpset * solver -> simpset \hfill{\bf infix 4}

 addSSolver : simpset * solver -> simpset \hfill{\bf infix 4}

 \end{ttbox}

 A solver is a tactic that attempts to solve a subgoal after

 simplification.  Typically it just proves trivial subgoals such as

 \texttt{True} and $t=t$.  It could use sophisticated means such as {\tt

   blast_tac}, though that could make simplification expensive.

 To keep things more abstract, solvers are packaged up in type

 \texttt{solver}. The only way to create a solver is via \texttt{mk_solver}.

 Rewriting does not instantiate unknowns.  For example, rewriting

 cannot prove $a\in \Var{A}$ since this requires

 instantiating~$\Var{A}$.  The solver, however, is an arbitrary tactic

 and may instantiate unknowns as it pleases.  This is the only way the

 simplifier can handle a conditional rewrite rule whose condition

 contains extra variables.  When a simplification tactic is to be

 combined with other provers, especially with the classical reasoner,

 it is important whether it can be considered safe or not.  For this

 reason a simpset contains two solvers, a safe and an unsafe one.

 The standard simplification strategy solely uses the unsafe solver,

 which is appropriate in most cases.  For special applications where

 the simplification process is not allowed to instantiate unknowns

 within the goal, simplification starts with the safe solver, but may

 still apply the ordinary unsafe one in nested simplifications for

 conditional rules or congruences. Note that in this way the overall

 tactic is not totally safe:  it may instantiate unknowns that appear also 

 in other subgoals.

 \begin{ttdescription}

 \item[\ttindexbold{mk_solver} $s$ $tacf$] converts $tacf$ into a new solver;

   the string $s$ is only attached as a comment and has no other significance.

 \item[$ss$ \ttindexbold{setSSolver} $tacf$] installs $tacf$ as the

   \emph{safe} solver of $ss$.

 \item[$ss$ \ttindexbold{addSSolver} $tacf$] adds $tacf$ as an

   additional \emph{safe} solver; it will be tried after the solvers

   which had already been present in $ss$.

 \item[$ss$ \ttindexbold{setSolver} $tacf$] installs $tacf$ as the

   unsafe solver of $ss$.

 \item[$ss$ \ttindexbold{addSolver} $tacf$] adds $tacf$ as an

   additional unsafe solver; it will be tried after the solvers which

   had already been present in $ss$.

 \end{ttdescription}

 \medskip

 \index{assumptions!in simplification} The solver tactic is invoked

 with a list of theorems, namely assumptions that hold in the local

 context.  This may be non-empty only if the simplifier has been told

 to utilize local assumptions in the first place, e.g.\ if invoked via

 \texttt{asm_simp_tac}.  The solver is also presented the full goal

 including its assumptions in any case.  Thus it can use these (e.g.\ 

 by calling \texttt{assume_tac}), even if the list of premises is not

 passed.

 \medskip

 As explained in {\S}\ref{sec:simp-subgoaler}, the subgoaler is also used

 to solve the premises of congruence rules.  These are usually of the

 form $s = \Var{x}$, where $s$ needs to be simplified and $\Var{x}$

 needs to be instantiated with the result.  Typically, the subgoaler

 will invoke the simplifier at some point, which will eventually call

 the solver.  For this reason, solver tactics must be prepared to solve

 goals of the form $t = \Var{x}$, usually by reflexivity.  In

 particular, reflexivity should be tried before any of the fancy

 tactics like \texttt{blast_tac}.

 It may even happen that due to simplification the subgoal is no longer

 an equality.  For example $False \bimp \Var{Q}$ could be rewritten to

 $\neg\Var{Q}$.  To cover this case, the solver could try resolving

 with the theorem $\neg False$.

 \medskip

 \begin{warn}

   If a premise of a congruence rule cannot be proved, then the

   congruence is ignored.  This should only happen if the rule is

   \emph{conditional} --- that is, contains premises not of the form $t

   = \Var{x}$; otherwise it indicates that some congruence rule, or

   possibly the subgoaler or solver, is faulty.

 \end{warn}

 \subsection{*The looper}\label{sec:simp-looper}

 \begin{ttbox}

 setloop   : simpset *           (int -> tactic)  -> simpset \hfill{\bf infix 4}

 addloop   : simpset * (string * (int -> tactic)) -> simpset \hfill{\bf infix 4}

 delloop   : simpset *  string                    -> simpset \hfill{\bf infix 4}

 addsplits : simpset * thm list -> simpset \hfill{\bf infix 4}

 delsplits : simpset * thm list -> simpset \hfill{\bf infix 4}

 \end{ttbox}

 The looper is a list of tactics that are applied after simplification, in case

 the solver failed to solve the simplified goal.  If the looper

 succeeds, the simplification process is started all over again.  Each

 of the subgoals generated by the looper is attacked in turn, in

 reverse order.

 A typical looper is \index{case splitting}: the expansion of a conditional.

 Another possibility is to apply an elimination rule on the

 assumptions.  More adventurous loopers could start an induction.

 \begin{ttdescription}

 \item[$ss$ \ttindexbold{setloop} $tacf$] installs $tacf$ as the only looper

   tactic of $ss$.

 \item[$ss$ \ttindexbold{addloop} $(name,tacf)$] adds $tacf$ as an additional

   looper tactic with name $name$; it will be tried after the looper tactics

   that had already been present in $ss$.

 \item[$ss$ \ttindexbold{delloop} $name$] deletes the looper tactic $name$

   from $ss$.

 \item[$ss$ \ttindexbold{addsplits} $thms$] adds

   split tactics for $thms$ as additional looper tactics of $ss$.

 \item[$ss$ \ttindexbold{addsplits} $thms$] deletes the

   split tactics for $thms$ from the looper tactics of $ss$.

 \end{ttdescription}

 The splitter replaces applications of a given function; the right-hand side

 of the replacement can be anything.  For example, here is a splitting rule

 for conditional expressions:

 \[ \Var{P}(if(\Var{Q},\Var{x},\Var{y})) \bimp (\Var{Q} \imp \Var{P}(\Var{x}))

 \conj (\neg\Var{Q} \imp \Var{P}(\Var{y})) 

 \] 

 Another example is the elimination operator for Cartesian products (which

 happens to be called~$split$):  

 \[ \Var{P}(split(\Var{f},\Var{p})) \bimp (\forall a~b. \Var{p} =

 \langle a,b\rangle \imp \Var{P}(\Var{f}(a,b))) 

 \] 

 For technical reasons, there is a distinction between case splitting in the 

 conclusion and in the premises of a subgoal. The former is done by

 \texttt{split_tac} with rules like \texttt{split_if} or \texttt{option.split}, 

 which do not split the subgoal, while the latter is done by 

 \texttt{split_asm_tac} with rules like \texttt{split_if_asm} or 

 \texttt{option.split_asm}, which split the subgoal.

 The operator \texttt{addsplits} automatically takes care of which tactic to

 call, analyzing the form of the rules given as argument.

 \begin{warn}

 Due to \texttt{split_asm_tac}, the simplifier may split subgoals!

 \end{warn}

 Case splits should be allowed only when necessary; they are expensive

 and hard to control.  Here is an example of use, where \texttt{split_if}

 is the first rule above:

 \begin{ttbox}

 by (simp_tac (simpset() 

                  addloop ("split if", split_tac [split_if])) 1);

 \end{ttbox}

 Users would usually prefer the following shortcut using \texttt{addsplits}:

 \begin{ttbox}

 by (simp_tac (simpset() addsplits [split_if]) 1);

 \end{ttbox}

 Case-splitting on conditional expressions is usually beneficial, so it is

 enabled by default in the object-logics \texttt{HOL} and \texttt{FOL}.

 \section{The simplification tactics}\label{simp-tactics}

 \index{simplification!tactics}\index{tactics!simplification}

 \begin{ttbox}

 generic_simp_tac       : bool -> bool * bool * bool -> 

                          simpset -> int -> tactic

 simp_tac               : simpset -> int -> tactic

 asm_simp_tac           : simpset -> int -> tactic

 full_simp_tac          : simpset -> int -> tactic

 asm_full_simp_tac      : simpset -> int -> tactic

 safe_asm_full_simp_tac : simpset -> int -> tactic

 \end{ttbox}

 \texttt{generic_simp_tac} is the basic tactic that is underlying any actual

 simplification work. The others are just instantiations of it. The rewriting 

 strategy is always strictly bottom up, except for congruence rules, 

 which are applied while descending into a term.  Conditions in conditional 

 rewrite rules are solved recursively before the rewrite rule is applied.

 \begin{ttdescription}

 \item[\ttindexbold{generic_simp_tac} $safe$ ($simp\_asm$, $use\_asm$, $mutual$)] 

   gives direct access to the various simplification modes: 

   \begin{itemize}

   \item if $safe$ is {\tt true}, the safe solver is used as explained in

   {\S}\ref{sec:simp-solver},  

   \item $simp\_asm$ determines whether the local assumptions are simplified,

   \item $use\_asm$ determines whether the assumptions are used as local rewrite 

    rules, and

   \item $mutual$ determines whether assumptions can simplify each other rather

   than being processed from left to right. 

   \end{itemize}

   This generic interface is intended 

   for building special tools, e.g.\ for combining the simplifier with the 

   classical reasoner. It is rarely used directly.

 \item[\ttindexbold{simp_tac}, \ttindexbold{asm_simp_tac},

   \ttindexbold{full_simp_tac}, \ttindexbold{asm_full_simp_tac}] are

   the basic simplification tactics that work exactly like their

   namesakes in {\S}\ref{sec:simp-for-dummies}, except that they are

   explicitly supplied with a simpset.

 \end{ttdescription}

 \medskip

 Local modifications of simpsets within a proof are often much cleaner

 by using above tactics in conjunction with explicit simpsets, rather

 than their capitalized counterparts.  For example

 \begin{ttbox}

 Addsimps \(thms\);

 by (Simp_tac \(i\));

 Delsimps \(thms\);

 \end{ttbox}

 can be expressed more appropriately as

 \begin{ttbox}

 by (simp_tac (simpset() addsimps \(thms\)) \(i\));

 \end{ttbox}

 \medskip

 Also note that functions depending implicitly on the current theory

 context (like capital \texttt{Simp_tac} and the other commands of

 {\S}\ref{sec:simp-for-dummies}) should be considered harmful outside of

 actual proof scripts.  In particular, ML programs like theory

 definition packages or special tactics should refer to simpsets only

 explicitly, via the above tactics used in conjunction with

 \texttt{simpset_of} or the \texttt{SIMPSET} tacticals.

 \section{Forward rules and conversions}

 \index{simplification!forward rules}\index{simplification!conversions}

 \begin{ttbox}\index{*simplify}\index{*asm_simplify}\index{*full_simplify}\index{*asm_full_simplify}\index{*Simplifier.rewrite}\index{*Simplifier.asm_rewrite}\index{*Simplifier.full_rewrite}\index{*Simplifier.asm_full_rewrite}

 simplify          : simpset -> thm -> thm

 asm_simplify      : simpset -> thm -> thm

 full_simplify     : simpset -> thm -> thm

 asm_full_simplify : simpset -> thm -> thm\medskip

 Simplifier.rewrite           : simpset -> cterm -> thm

 Simplifier.asm_rewrite       : simpset -> cterm -> thm

 Simplifier.full_rewrite      : simpset -> cterm -> thm

 Simplifier.asm_full_rewrite  : simpset -> cterm -> thm

 \end{ttbox}

 The first four of these functions provide \emph{forward} rules for

 simplification.  Their effect is analogous to the corresponding

 tactics described in {\S}\ref{simp-tactics}, but affect the whole

 theorem instead of just a certain subgoal.  Also note that the

 looper~/ solver process as described in {\S}\ref{sec:simp-looper} and

 {\S}\ref{sec:simp-solver} is omitted in forward simplification.

 The latter four are \emph{conversions}, establishing proven equations

 of the form $t \equiv u$ where the l.h.s.\ $t$ has been given as

 argument.

 \begin{warn}

   Forward simplification rules and conversions should be used rarely

   in ordinary proof scripts.  The main intention is to provide an

   internal interface to the simplifier for special utilities.

 \end{warn}

 \section{Permutative rewrite rules}

 \index{rewrite rules!permutative|(}

 A rewrite rule is {\bf permutative} if the left-hand side and right-hand

 side are the same up to renaming of variables.  The most common permutative

 rule is commutativity: $x+y = y+x$.  Other examples include $(x-y)-z =

 (x-z)-y$ in arithmetic and $insert(x,insert(y,A)) = insert(y,insert(x,A))$

 for sets.  Such rules are common enough to merit special attention.

 Because ordinary rewriting loops given such rules, the simplifier

 employs a special strategy, called {\bf ordered

   rewriting}\index{rewriting!ordered}.  There is a standard

 lexicographic ordering on terms.  This should be perfectly OK in most

 cases, but can be changed for special applications.

 \begin{ttbox}

 settermless : simpset * (term * term -> bool) -> simpset \hfill{\bf infix 4}

 \end{ttbox}

 \begin{ttdescription}

 \item[$ss$ \ttindexbold{settermless} $rel$] installs relation $rel$ as

   term order in simpset $ss$.

 \end{ttdescription}

 \medskip

 A permutative rewrite rule is applied only if it decreases the given

 term with respect to this ordering.  For example, commutativity

 rewrites~$b+a$ to $a+b$, but then stops because $a+b$ is strictly less

 than $b+a$.  The Boyer-Moore theorem prover~\cite{bm88book} also

 employs ordered rewriting.

 Permutative rewrite rules are added to simpsets just like other

 rewrite rules; the simplifier recognizes their special status

 automatically.  They are most effective in the case of

 associative-commutative operators.  (Associativity by itself is not

 permutative.)  When dealing with an AC-operator~$f$, keep the

 following points in mind:

 \begin{itemize}\index{associative-commutative operators}

 \item The associative law must always be oriented from left to right,

   namely $f(f(x,y),z) = f(x,f(y,z))$.  The opposite orientation, if

   used with commutativity, leads to looping in conjunction with the

   standard term order.

 \item To complete your set of rewrite rules, you must add not just

   associativity~(A) and commutativity~(C) but also a derived rule, {\bf

     left-com\-mut\-ativ\-ity} (LC): $f(x,f(y,z)) = f(y,f(x,z))$.

 \end{itemize}

 Ordered rewriting with the combination of A, C, and~LC sorts a term

 lexicographically:

 \[\def\maps#1{\stackrel{#1}{\longmapsto}}

  (b+c)+a \maps{A} b+(c+a) \maps{C} b+(a+c) \maps{LC} a+(b+c) \]

 Martin and Nipkow~\cite{martin-nipkow} discuss the theory and give many

 examples; other algebraic structures are amenable to ordered rewriting,

 such as boolean rings.

 \subsection{Example: sums of natural numbers}

 This example is again set in HOL (see \texttt{HOL/ex/NatSum}).  Theory

 \thydx{Arith} contains natural numbers arithmetic.  Its associated simpset

 contains many arithmetic laws including distributivity of~$\times$ over~$+$,

 while \texttt{add_ac} is a list consisting of the A, C and LC laws for~$+$ on

 type \texttt{nat}.  Let us prove the theorem

 \[ \sum@{i=1}^n i = n\times(n+1)/2. \]

 %

 A functional~\texttt{sum} represents the summation operator under the

 interpretation $\texttt{sum} \, f \, (n + 1) = \sum@{i=0}^n f\,i$.  We

 extend \texttt{Arith} as follows:

 \begin{ttbox}

 NatSum = Arith +

 consts sum     :: [nat=>nat, nat] => nat

 primrec 

   "sum f 0 = 0"

   "sum f (Suc n) = f(n) + sum f n"

 end

 \end{ttbox}

 The \texttt{primrec} declaration automatically adds rewrite rules for

 \texttt{sum} to the default simpset.  We now remove the

 \texttt{nat_cancel} simplification procedures (in order not to spoil

 the example) and insert the AC-rules for~$+$:

 \begin{ttbox}

 Delsimprocs nat_cancel;

 Addsimps add_ac;

 \end{ttbox}

 Our desired theorem now reads $\texttt{sum} \, (\lambda i.i) \, (n+1) =

 n\times(n+1)/2$.  The Isabelle goal has both sides multiplied by~$2$:

 \begin{ttbox}

 Goal "2 * sum (\%i.i) (Suc n) = n * Suc n";

 {\out Level 0}

 {\out 2 * sum (\%i. i) (Suc n) = n * Suc n}

 {\out  1. 2 * sum (\%i. i) (Suc n) = n * Suc n}

 \end{ttbox}

 Induction should not be applied until the goal is in the simplest

 form:

 \begin{ttbox}

 by (Simp_tac 1);

 {\out Level 1}

 {\out 2 * sum (\%i. i) (Suc n) = n * Suc n}

 {\out  1. n + (sum (\%i. i) n + sum (\%i. i) n) = n * n}

 \end{ttbox}

 Ordered rewriting has sorted the terms in the left-hand side.  The

 subgoal is now ready for induction:

 \begin{ttbox}

 by (induct_tac "n" 1);

 {\out Level 2}

 {\out 2 * sum (\%i. i) (Suc n) = n * Suc n}

 {\out  1. 0 + (sum (\%i. i) 0 + sum (\%i. i) 0) = 0 * 0}

 \ttbreak

 {\out  2. !!n. n + (sum (\%i. i) n + sum (\%i. i) n) = n * n}

 {\out           ==> Suc n + (sum (\%i. i) (Suc n) + sum (\%i.\,i) (Suc n)) =}

 {\out               Suc n * Suc n}

 \end{ttbox}

 Simplification proves both subgoals immediately:\index{*ALLGOALS}

 \begin{ttbox}

 by (ALLGOALS Asm_simp_tac);

 {\out Level 3}

 {\out 2 * sum (\%i. i) (Suc n) = n * Suc n}

 {\out No subgoals!}

 \end{ttbox}

 Simplification cannot prove the induction step if we omit \texttt{add_ac} from

 the simpset.  Observe that like terms have not been collected:

 \begin{ttbox}

 {\out Level 3}

 {\out 2 * sum (\%i. i) (Suc n) = n * Suc n}

 {\out  1. !!n. n + sum (\%i. i) n + (n + sum (\%i. i) n) = n + n * n}

 {\out           ==> n + (n + sum (\%i. i) n) + (n + (n + sum (\%i.\,i) n)) =}

 {\out               n + (n + (n + n * n))}

 \end{ttbox}

 Ordered rewriting proves this by sorting the left-hand side.  Proving

 arithmetic theorems without ordered rewriting requires explicit use of

 commutativity.  This is tedious; try it and see!

 Ordered rewriting is equally successful in proving

 $\sum@{i=1}^n i^3 = n^2\times(n+1)^2/4$.

 \subsection{Re-orienting equalities}

 Ordered rewriting with the derived rule \texttt{symmetry} can reverse

 equations:

 \begin{ttbox}

 val symmetry = prove_goal HOL.thy "(x=y) = (y=x)"

                  (fn _ => [Blast_tac 1]);

 \end{ttbox}

 This is frequently useful.  Assumptions of the form $s=t$, where $t$ occurs

 in the conclusion but not~$s$, can often be brought into the right form.

 For example, ordered rewriting with \texttt{symmetry} can prove the goal

 \[ f(a)=b \conj f(a)=c \imp b=c. \]

 Here \texttt{symmetry} reverses both $f(a)=b$ and $f(a)=c$

 because $f(a)$ is lexicographically greater than $b$ and~$c$.  These

 re-oriented equations, as rewrite rules, replace $b$ and~$c$ in the

 conclusion by~$f(a)$. 

 Another example is the goal $\neg(t=u) \imp \neg(u=t)$.

 The differing orientations make this appear difficult to prove.  Ordered

 rewriting with \texttt{symmetry} makes the equalities agree.  (Without

 knowing more about~$t$ and~$u$ we cannot say whether they both go to $t=u$

 or~$u=t$.)  Then the simplifier can prove the goal outright.

 \index{rewrite rules!permutative|)}

 \section{*Coding simplification procedures}

 \begin{ttbox}

   val Simplifier.simproc: Sign.sg -> string -> string list

     -> (Sign.sg -> simpset -> term -> thm option) -> simproc

   val Simplifier.simproc_i: Sign.sg -> string -> term list

     -> (Sign.sg -> simpset -> term -> thm option) -> simproc

 \end{ttbox}

 \begin{ttdescription}

 \item[\ttindexbold{Simplifier.simproc}~$sign$~$name$~$lhss$~$proc$] makes

   $proc$ a simplification procedure for left-hand side patterns $lhss$.  The

   name just serves as a comment.  The function $proc$ may be invoked by the

   simplifier for redex positions matched by one of $lhss$ as described below

   (which are be specified as strings to be read as terms).

 \item[\ttindexbold{Simplifier.simproc_i}] is similar to

   \verb,Simplifier.simproc,, but takes well-typed terms as pattern argument.

 \end{ttdescription}

 Simplification procedures are applied in a two-stage process as

 follows: The simplifier tries to match the current redex position

 against any one of the $lhs$ patterns of any simplification procedure.

 If this succeeds, it invokes the corresponding {\ML} function, passing

 with the current signature, local assumptions and the (potential)

 redex.  The result may be either \texttt{None} (indicating failure) or

 \texttt{Some~$thm$}.

 Any successful result is supposed to be a (possibly conditional)

 rewrite rule $t \equiv u$ that is applicable to the current redex.

 The rule will be applied just as any ordinary rewrite rule.  It is

 expected to be already in \emph{internal form}, though, bypassing the

 automatic preprocessing of object-level equivalences.

 \medskip

 As an example of how to write your own simplification procedures,

 consider eta-expansion of pair abstraction (see also

 \texttt{HOL/Modelcheck/MCSyn} where this is used to provide external

 model checker syntax).

 The HOL theory of tuples (see \texttt{HOL/Prod}) provides an operator

 \texttt{split} together with some concrete syntax supporting

 $\lambda\,(x,y).b$ abstractions.  Assume that we would like to offer a tactic

 that rewrites any function $\lambda\,p.f\,p$ (where $p$ is of some pair type)

 to $\lambda\,(x,y).f\,(x,y)$.  The corresponding rule is:

 \begin{ttbox}

 pair_eta_expand:  (f::'a*'b=>'c) = (\%(x, y). f (x, y))

 \end{ttbox}

 Unfortunately, term rewriting using this rule directly would not

 terminate!  We now use the simplification procedure mechanism in order

 to stop the simplifier from applying this rule over and over again,

 making it rewrite only actual abstractions.  The simplification

 procedure \texttt{pair_eta_expand_proc} is defined as follows:

 \begin{ttbox}

 val pair_eta_expand_proc =

   Simplifier.simproc (Theory.sign_of (the_context ()))

     "pair_eta_expand" ["f::'a*'b=>'c"]

     (fn _ => fn _ => fn t =>

       case t of Abs _ => Some (mk_meta_eq pair_eta_expand)

       | _ => None);

 \end{ttbox}

 This is an example of using \texttt{pair_eta_expand_proc}:

 \begin{ttbox}

 {\out 1. P (\%p::'a * 'a. fst p + snd p + z)}

 by (simp_tac (simpset() addsimprocs [pair_eta_expand_proc]) 1);

 {\out 1. P (\%(x::'a,y::'a). x + y + z)}

 \end{ttbox}

 \medskip

 In the above example the simplification procedure just did fine

 grained control over rule application, beyond higher-order pattern

 matching.  Usually, procedures would do some more work, in particular

 prove particular theorems depending on the current redex.

 \section{*Setting up the Simplifier}\label{sec:setting-up-simp}

 \index{simplification!setting up}

 Setting up the simplifier for new logics is complicated in the general case.

 This section describes how the simplifier is installed for intuitionistic

 first-order logic; the code is largely taken from {\tt FOL/simpdata.ML} of the

 Isabelle sources.

 The case splitting tactic, which resides on a separate files, is not part of

 Pure Isabelle.  It needs to be loaded explicitly by the object-logic as

 follows (below \texttt{\~\relax\~\relax} refers to \texttt{\$ISABELLE_HOME}):

 \begin{ttbox}

 use "\~\relax\~\relax/src/Provers/splitter.ML";

 \end{ttbox}

 Simplification requires converting object-equalities to meta-level rewrite

 rules.  This demands rules stating that equal terms and equivalent formulae

 are also equal at the meta-level.  The rule declaration part of the file

 \texttt{FOL/IFOL.thy} contains the two lines

 \begin{ttbox}\index{*eq_reflection theorem}\index{*iff_reflection theorem}

 eq_reflection   "(x=y)   ==> (x==y)"

 iff_reflection  "(P<->Q) ==> (P==Q)"

 \end{ttbox}

 Of course, you should only assert such rules if they are true for your

 particular logic.  In Constructive Type Theory, equality is a ternary

 relation of the form $a=b\in A$; the type~$A$ determines the meaning

 of the equality essentially as a partial equivalence relation.  The

 present simplifier cannot be used.  Rewriting in \texttt{CTT} uses

 another simplifier, which resides in the file {\tt

   Provers/typedsimp.ML} and is not documented.  Even this does not

 work for later variants of Constructive Type Theory that use

 intensional equality~\cite{nordstrom90}.

 \subsection{A collection of standard rewrite rules}

 We first prove lots of standard rewrite rules about the logical

 connectives.  These include cancellation and associative laws.  We

 define a function that echoes the desired law and then supplies it the

 prover for intuitionistic FOL:

 \begin{ttbox}

 fun int_prove_fun s = 

  (writeln s;  

   prove_goal IFOL.thy s

    (fn prems => [ (cut_facts_tac prems 1), 

                   (IntPr.fast_tac 1) ]));

 \end{ttbox}

 The following rewrite rules about conjunction are a selection of those

 proved on \texttt{FOL/simpdata.ML}.  Later, these will be supplied to the

 standard simpset.

 \begin{ttbox}

 val conj_simps = map int_prove_fun

  ["P & True <-> P",      "True & P <-> P",

   "P & False <-> False", "False & P <-> False",

   "P & P <-> P",

   "P & ~P <-> False",    "~P & P <-> False",

   "(P & Q) & R <-> P & (Q & R)"];

 \end{ttbox}

 The file also proves some distributive laws.  As they can cause exponential

 blowup, they will not be included in the standard simpset.  Instead they

 are merely bound to an \ML{} identifier, for user reference.

 \begin{ttbox}

 val distrib_simps  = map int_prove_fun

  ["P & (Q | R) <-> P&Q | P&R", 

   "(Q | R) & P <-> Q&P | R&P",

   "(P | Q --> R) <-> (P --> R) & (Q --> R)"];

 \end{ttbox}

 \subsection{Functions for preprocessing the rewrite rules}

 \label{sec:setmksimps}

 \begin{ttbox}\indexbold{*setmksimps}

 setmksimps : simpset * (thm -> thm list) -> simpset \hfill{\bf infix 4}

 \end{ttbox}

 The next step is to define the function for preprocessing rewrite rules.

 This will be installed by calling \texttt{setmksimps} below.  Preprocessing

 occurs whenever rewrite rules are added, whether by user command or

 automatically.  Preprocessing involves extracting atomic rewrites at the

 object-level, then reflecting them to the meta-level.

 To start, the function \texttt{gen_all} strips any meta-level

 quantifiers from the front of the given theorem.

 The function \texttt{atomize} analyses a theorem in order to extract

 atomic rewrite rules.  The head of all the patterns, matched by the

 wildcard~\texttt{_}, is the coercion function \texttt{Trueprop}.

 \begin{ttbox}

 fun atomize th = case concl_of th of 

     _ $ (Const("op &",_) $ _ $ _)   => atomize(th RS conjunct1) \at

                                        atomize(th RS conjunct2)

   | _ $ (Const("op -->",_) $ _ $ _) => atomize(th RS mp)

   | _ $ (Const("All",_) $ _)        => atomize(th RS spec)

   | _ $ (Const("True",_))           => []

   | _ $ (Const("False",_))          => []

   | _                               => [th];

 \end{ttbox}

 There are several cases, depending upon the form of the conclusion:

 \begin{itemize}

 \item Conjunction: extract rewrites from both conjuncts.

 \item Implication: convert $P\imp Q$ to the meta-implication $P\Imp Q$ and

   extract rewrites from~$Q$; these will be conditional rewrites with the

   condition~$P$.

 \item Universal quantification: remove the quantifier, replacing the bound

   variable by a schematic variable, and extract rewrites from the body.

 \item \texttt{True} and \texttt{False} contain no useful rewrites.

 \item Anything else: return the theorem in a singleton list.

 \end{itemize}

 The resulting theorems are not literally atomic --- they could be

 disjunctive, for example --- but are broken down as much as possible. 

 See the file \texttt{ZF/simpdata.ML} for a sophisticated translation of

 set-theoretic formulae into rewrite rules. 

 For standard situations like the above,

 there is a generic auxiliary function \ttindexbold{mk_atomize} that takes a 

 list of pairs $(name, thms)$, where $name$ is an operator name and

 $thms$ is a list of theorems to resolve with in case the pattern matches, 

 and returns a suitable \texttt{atomize} function.

 The simplified rewrites must now be converted into meta-equalities.  The

 rule \texttt{eq_reflection} converts equality rewrites, while {\tt

   iff_reflection} converts if-and-only-if rewrites.  The latter possibility

 can arise in two other ways: the negative theorem~$\neg P$ is converted to

 $P\equiv\texttt{False}$, and any other theorem~$P$ is converted to

 $P\equiv\texttt{True}$.  The rules \texttt{iff_reflection_F} and {\tt

   iff_reflection_T} accomplish this conversion.

 \begin{ttbox}

 val P_iff_F = int_prove_fun "~P ==> (P <-> False)";

 val iff_reflection_F = P_iff_F RS iff_reflection;

 \ttbreak

 val P_iff_T = int_prove_fun "P ==> (P <-> True)";

 val iff_reflection_T = P_iff_T RS iff_reflection;

 \end{ttbox}

 The function \texttt{mk_eq} converts a theorem to a meta-equality

 using the case analysis described above.

 \begin{ttbox}

 fun mk_eq th = case concl_of th of

     _ $ (Const("op =",_)$_$_)   => th RS eq_reflection

   | _ $ (Const("op <->",_)$_$_) => th RS iff_reflection

   | _ $ (Const("Not",_)$_)      => th RS iff_reflection_F

   | _                           => th RS iff_reflection_T;

 \end{ttbox}

 The 

 three functions \texttt{gen_all}, \texttt{atomize} and \texttt{mk_eq} 

 will be composed together and supplied below to \texttt{setmksimps}.

 \subsection{Making the initial simpset}

 It is time to assemble these items.  The list \texttt{IFOL_simps} contains the

 default rewrite rules for intuitionistic first-order logic.  The first of

 these is the reflexive law expressed as the equivalence

 $(a=a)\bimp\texttt{True}$; the rewrite rule $a=a$ is clearly useless.

 \begin{ttbox}

 val IFOL_simps =

    [refl RS P_iff_T] \at conj_simps \at disj_simps \at not_simps \at 

     imp_simps \at iff_simps \at quant_simps;

 \end{ttbox}

 The list \texttt{triv_rls} contains trivial theorems for the solver.  Any

 subgoal that is simplified to one of these will be removed.

 \begin{ttbox}

 val notFalseI = int_prove_fun "~False";

 val triv_rls = [TrueI,refl,iff_refl,notFalseI];

 \end{ttbox}

 We also define the function \ttindex{mk_meta_cong} to convert the conclusion

 of congruence rules into meta-equalities.

 \begin{ttbox}

 fun mk_meta_cong rl = standard (mk_meta_eq (mk_meta_prems rl));

 \end{ttbox}

 %

 The basic simpset for intuitionistic FOL is \ttindexbold{FOL_basic_ss}.  It

 preprocess rewrites using 

 {\tt gen_all}, \texttt{atomize} and \texttt{mk_eq}.

 It solves simplified subgoals using \texttt{triv_rls} and assumptions, and by

 detecting contradictions.  It uses \ttindex{asm_simp_tac} to tackle subgoals

 of conditional rewrites.

 Other simpsets built from \texttt{FOL_basic_ss} will inherit these items.

 In particular, \ttindexbold{IFOL_ss}, which introduces {\tt

   IFOL_simps} as rewrite rules.  \ttindexbold{FOL_ss} will later

 extend \texttt{IFOL_ss} with classical rewrite rules such as $\neg\neg

 P\bimp P$.

 \index{*setmksimps}\index{*setSSolver}\index{*setSolver}\index{*setsubgoaler}

 \index{*addsimps}\index{*addcongs}

 \begin{ttbox}

 fun unsafe_solver prems = FIRST'[resolve_tac (triv_rls {\at} prems),

                                  atac, etac FalseE];

 fun safe_solver prems = FIRST'[match_tac (triv_rls {\at} prems),

                                eq_assume_tac, ematch_tac [FalseE]];

 val FOL_basic_ss =

       empty_ss setsubgoaler asm_simp_tac

                addsimprocs [defALL_regroup, defEX_regroup]

                setSSolver   safe_solver

                setSolver  unsafe_solver

                setmksimps (map mk_eq o atomize o gen_all)

                setmkcong mk_meta_cong;

 val IFOL_ss = 

       FOL_basic_ss addsimps (IFOL_simps {\at} 

                              int_ex_simps {\at} int_all_simps)

                    addcongs [imp_cong];

 \end{ttbox}

 This simpset takes \texttt{imp_cong} as a congruence rule in order to use

 contextual information to simplify the conclusions of implications:

 \[ \List{\Var{P}\bimp\Var{P'};\; \Var{P'} \Imp \Var{Q}\bimp\Var{Q'}} \Imp

    (\Var{P}\imp\Var{Q}) \bimp (\Var{P'}\imp\Var{Q'})

 \]

 By adding the congruence rule \texttt{conj_cong}, we could obtain a similar

 effect for conjunctions.

 \index{simplification|)}

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