(*  Title:      Doc/Datatypes/Datatypes.thy

     Author:     Jasmin Blanchette, TU Muenchen

     Author:     Lorenz Panny, TU Muenchen

     Author:     Andrei Popescu, TU Muenchen

     Author:     Dmitriy Traytel, TU Muenchen

 Tutorial for (co)datatype definitions with the new package.

 *)

 theory Datatypes

 imports Setup "~~/src/HOL/Library/Simps_Case_Conv"

 begin

 section {* Introduction

   \label{sec:introduction} *}

 text {*

 The 2013 edition of Isabelle introduced a new definitional package for freely

 generated datatypes and codatatypes. The datatype support is similar to that

 provided by the earlier package due to Berghofer and Wenzel

 \cite{Berghofer-Wenzel:1999:TPHOL}, documented in the Isar reference manual

 \cite{isabelle-isar-ref}; indeed, replacing the keyword \keyw{datatype} by

 @{command datatype_new} is usually all that is needed to port existing theories

 to use the new package.

 Perhaps the main advantage of the new package is that it supports recursion

 through a large class of non-datatypes, such as finite sets:

 *}

     datatype_new 'a tree\<^sub>f\<^sub>s = Node\<^sub>f\<^sub>s (lbl\<^sub>f\<^sub>s: 'a) (sub\<^sub>f\<^sub>s: "'a tree\<^sub>f\<^sub>s fset")

 text {*

 \noindent

 Another strong point is the support for local definitions:

 *}

     context linorder

     begin

     datatype_new flag = Less | Eq | Greater

     end

 text {*

 \noindent

 Furthermore, the package provides a lot of convenience, including automatically

 generated discriminators, selectors, and relators as well as a wealth of

 properties about them.

 In addition to inductive datatypes, the new package supports coinductive

 datatypes, or \emph{codatatypes}, which allow infinite values. For example, the

 following command introduces the type of lazy lists, which comprises both finite

 and infinite values:

 *}

 (*<*)

     locale early

     locale late

 (*>*)

     codatatype (*<*)(in early) (*>*)'a llist = LNil | LCons 'a "'a llist"

 text {*

 \noindent

 Mixed inductive--coinductive recursion is possible via nesting. Compare the

 following four Rose tree examples:

 *}

     datatype_new (*<*)(in early) (*>*)'a tree\<^sub>f\<^sub>f = Node\<^sub>f\<^sub>f 'a "'a tree\<^sub>f\<^sub>f list"

     datatype_new (*<*)(in early) (*>*)'a tree\<^sub>f\<^sub>i = Node\<^sub>f\<^sub>i 'a "'a tree\<^sub>f\<^sub>i llist"

     codatatype (*<*)(in early) (*>*)'a tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>f = Node\<^sub>i\<^sub>f 'a "'a tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>f list"

     codatatype (*<*)(in early) (*>*)'a tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>i = Node\<^sub>i\<^sub>i 'a "'a tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>i llist"

 text {*

 The first two tree types allow only paths of finite length, whereas the last two

 allow infinite paths. Orthogonally, the nodes in the first and third types have

 finitely many direct subtrees, whereas those of the second and fourth may have

 infinite branching.

 To use the package, it is necessary to import the @{theory BNF} theory, which

 can be precompiled into the \texttt{HOL-BNF} image. The following commands show

 how to launch jEdit/PIDE with the image loaded and how to build the image

 without launching jEdit:

 *}

 text {*

 \noindent

 \ \ \ \ \texttt{isabelle jedit -l HOL-BNF} \\

 \noindent

 \hbox{}\ \ \ \ \texttt{isabelle build -b HOL-BNF}

 *}

 text {*

 The package, like its predecessor, fully adheres to the LCF philosophy

 \cite{mgordon79}: The characteristic theorems associated with the specified

 (co)datatypes are derived rather than introduced axiomatically.%

 \footnote{If the @{text quick_and_dirty} option is enabled, some of the

 internal constructions and most of the internal proof obligations are skipped.}

 The package's metatheory is described in a pair of papers

 \cite{traytel-et-al-2012,blanchette-et-al-wit}. The central notion is that of a

 \emph{bounded natural functor} (BNF)---a well-behaved type constructor for which

 nested (co)recursion is supported.

 This tutorial is organized as follows:

 \begin{itemize}

 \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}

 \item Section \ref{sec:defining-datatypes}, ``Defining Datatypes,''

 describes how to specify datatypes using the @{command datatype_new} command.

 \item Section \ref{sec:defining-recursive-functions}, ``Defining Recursive

 Functions,'' describes how to specify recursive functions using

 @{command primrec_new}, \keyw{fun}, and \keyw{function}.

 \item Section \ref{sec:defining-codatatypes}, ``Defining Codatatypes,''

 describes how to specify codatatypes using the @{command codatatype} command.

 \item Section \ref{sec:defining-corecursive-functions}, ``Defining Corecursive

 Functions,'' describes how to specify corecursive functions using the

 @{command primcorec} and @{command primcorecursive} commands.

 \item Section \ref{sec:registering-bounded-natural-functors}, ``Registering

 Bounded Natural Functors,'' explains how to use the @{command bnf} command

 to register arbitrary type constructors as BNFs.

 \item Section

 \ref{sec:deriving-destructors-and-theorems-for-free-constructors},

 ``Deriving Destructors and Theorems for Free Constructors,'' explains how to

 use the command @{command wrap_free_constructors} to derive destructor constants

 and theorems for freely generated types, as performed internally by @{command

 datatype_new} and @{command codatatype}.

 %\item Section \ref{sec:standard-ml-interface}, ``Standard ML Interface,''

 %describes the package's programmatic interface.

 %\item Section \ref{sec:interoperability}, ``Interoperability,''

 %is concerned with the packages' interaction with other Isabelle packages and

 %tools, such as the code generator and the counterexample generators.

 %\item Section \ref{sec:known-bugs-and-limitations}, ``Known Bugs and

 %Limitations,'' concludes with known open issues at the time of writing.

 \end{itemize}

 \newbox\boxA

 \setbox\boxA=\hbox{\texttt{NOSPAM}}

 \newcommand\authoremaili{\texttt{blan{\color{white}NOSPAM}\kern-\wd\boxA{}chette@\allowbreak

 in.\allowbreak tum.\allowbreak de}}

 \newcommand\authoremailii{\texttt{lore{\color{white}NOSPAM}\kern-\wd\boxA{}nz.panny@\allowbreak

 \allowbreak tum.\allowbreak de}}

 \newcommand\authoremailiii{\texttt{pope{\color{white}NOSPAM}\kern-\wd\boxA{}scua@\allowbreak

 in.\allowbreak tum.\allowbreak de}}

 \newcommand\authoremailiv{\texttt{tray{\color{white}NOSPAM}\kern-\wd\boxA{}tel@\allowbreak

 in.\allowbreak tum.\allowbreak de}}

 The commands @{command datatype_new} and @{command primrec_new} are expected to

 replace \keyw{datatype} and \keyw{primrec} in a future release. Authors of new

 theories are encouraged to use the new commands, and maintainers of older

 theories may want to consider upgrading.

 Comments and bug reports concerning either the tool or this tutorial should be

 directed to the authors at \authoremaili, \authoremailii, \authoremailiii,

 and \authoremailiv.

 *}

 section {* Defining Datatypes

   \label{sec:defining-datatypes} *}

 text {*

 Datatypes can be specified using the @{command datatype_new} command.

 *}

 subsection {* Introductory Examples

   \label{ssec:datatype-introductory-examples} *}

 text {*

 Datatypes are illustrated through concrete examples featuring different flavors

 of recursion. More examples can be found in the directory

 \verb|~~/src/HOL/|\allowbreak\verb|BNF/Examples|.

 *}

 subsubsection {* Nonrecursive Types

   \label{sssec:datatype-nonrecursive-types} *}

 text {*

 Datatypes are introduced by specifying the desired names and argument types for

 their constructors. \emph{Enumeration} types are the simplest form of datatype.

 All their constructors are nullary:

 *}

     datatype_new trool = Truue | Faalse | Perhaaps

 text {*

 \noindent

 Here, @{const Truue}, @{const Faalse}, and @{const Perhaaps} have the type @{typ trool}.

 Polymorphic types are possible, such as the following option type, modeled after

 its homologue from the @{theory Option} theory:

 *}

 (*<*)

     hide_const None Some

 (*>*)

     datatype_new 'a option = None | Some 'a

 text {*

 \noindent

 The constructors are @{text "None :: 'a option"} and

 @{text "Some :: 'a \<Rightarrow> 'a option"}.

 The next example has three type parameters:

 *}

     datatype_new ('a, 'b, 'c) triple = Triple 'a 'b 'c

 text {*

 \noindent

 The constructor is

 @{text "Triple :: 'a \<Rightarrow> 'b \<Rightarrow> 'c \<Rightarrow> ('a, 'b, 'c) triple"}.

 Unlike in Standard ML, curried constructors are supported. The uncurried variant

 is also possible:

 *}

     datatype_new ('a, 'b, 'c) triple\<^sub>u = Triple\<^sub>u "'a * 'b * 'c"

 text {*

 \noindent

 Occurrences of nonatomic types on the right-hand side of the equal sign must be

 enclosed in double quotes, as is customary in Isabelle.

 *}

 subsubsection {* Simple Recursion

   \label{sssec:datatype-simple-recursion} *}

 text {*

 Natural numbers are the simplest example of a recursive type:

 *}

     datatype_new nat = Zero | Suc nat

 text {*

 \noindent

 Lists were shown in the introduction. Terminated lists are a variant that

 stores a value of type @{typ 'b} at the very end:

 *}

     datatype_new (*<*)(in early) (*>*)('a, 'b) tlist = TNil 'b | TCons 'a "('a, 'b) tlist"

 subsubsection {* Mutual Recursion

   \label{sssec:datatype-mutual-recursion} *}

 text {*

 \emph{Mutually recursive} types are introduced simultaneously and may refer to

 each other. The example below introduces a pair of types for even and odd

 natural numbers:

 *}

     datatype_new even_nat = Even_Zero | Even_Suc odd_nat

     and odd_nat = Odd_Suc even_nat

 text {*

 \noindent

 Arithmetic expressions are defined via terms, terms via factors, and factors via

 expressions:

 *}

     datatype_new ('a, 'b) exp =

       Term "('a, 'b) trm" | Sum "('a, 'b) trm" "('a, 'b) exp"

     and ('a, 'b) trm =

       Factor "('a, 'b) fct" | Prod "('a, 'b) fct" "('a, 'b) trm"

     and ('a, 'b) fct =

       Const 'a | Var 'b | Expr "('a, 'b) exp"

 subsubsection {* Nested Recursion

   \label{sssec:datatype-nested-recursion} *}

 text {*

 \emph{Nested recursion} occurs when recursive occurrences of a type appear under

 a type constructor. The introduction showed some examples of trees with nesting

 through lists. A more complex example, that reuses our @{type option} type,

 follows:

 *}

     datatype_new 'a btree =

       BNode 'a "'a btree option" "'a btree option"

 text {*

 \noindent

 Not all nestings are admissible. For example, this command will fail:

 *}

     datatype_new 'a wrong = W1 | W2 (*<*)'a

     typ (*>*)"'a wrong \<Rightarrow> 'a"

 text {*

 \noindent

 The issue is that the function arrow @{text "\<Rightarrow>"} allows recursion

 only through its right-hand side. This issue is inherited by polymorphic

 datatypes defined in terms of~@{text "\<Rightarrow>"}:

 *}

     datatype_new ('a, 'b) fn = Fn "'a \<Rightarrow> 'b"

     datatype_new 'a also_wrong = W1 | W2 (*<*)'a

     typ (*>*)"('a also_wrong, 'a) fn"

 text {*

 \noindent

 This is legal:

 *}

     datatype_new 'a ftree = FTLeaf 'a | FTNode "'a \<Rightarrow> 'a ftree"

 text {*

 \noindent

 In general, type constructors @{text "('a\<^sub>1, \<dots>, 'a\<^sub>m) t"}

 allow recursion on a subset of their type arguments @{text 'a\<^sub>1}, \ldots,

 @{text 'a\<^sub>m}. These type arguments are called \emph{live}; the remaining

 type arguments are called \emph{dead}. In @{typ "'a \<Rightarrow> 'b"} and

 @{typ "('a, 'b) fn"}, the type variable @{typ 'a} is dead and @{typ 'b} is live.

 Type constructors must be registered as BNFs to have live arguments. This is

 done automatically for datatypes and codatatypes introduced by the @{command

 datatype_new} and @{command codatatype} commands.

 Section~\ref{sec:registering-bounded-natural-functors} explains how to register

 arbitrary type constructors as BNFs.

 Here is another example that fails:

 *}

     datatype_new 'a pow_list = PNil 'a (*<*)'a

     datatype_new 'a pow_list' = PNil' 'a (*>*)| PCons "('a * 'a) pow_list"

 text {*

 \noindent

 This one features a different flavor of nesting, where the recursive call in the

 type specification occurs around (rather than inside) another type constructor.

 *}

 subsubsection {* Auxiliary Constants and Properties

   \label{sssec:datatype-auxiliary-constants-and-properties} *}

 text {*

 The @{command datatype_new} command introduces various constants in addition to

 the constructors. With each datatype are associated set functions, a map

 function, a relator, discriminators, and selectors, all of which can be given

 custom names. In the example below, the familiar names @{text null}, @{text hd},

 @{text tl}, @{text set}, @{text map}, and @{text list_all2}, override the

 default names @{text is_Nil}, @{text un_Cons1}, @{text un_Cons2},

 @{text set_list}, @{text map_list}, and @{text rel_list}:

 *}

 (*<*)

     no_translations

       "[x, xs]" == "x # [xs]"

       "[x]" == "x # []"

     no_notation

       Nil ("[]") and

       Cons (infixr "#" 65)

     hide_type list

     hide_const Nil Cons hd tl set map list_all2

     context early begin

 (*>*)

     datatype_new (set: 'a) list (map: map rel: list_all2) =

       null: Nil (defaults tl: Nil)

     | Cons (hd: 'a) (tl: "'a list")

 text {*

 \noindent

 \begin{tabular}{@ {}ll@ {}}

 Constructors: &

   @{text "Nil \<Colon> 'a list"} \\

 &

   @{text "Cons \<Colon> 'a \<Rightarrow> 'a list \<Rightarrow> 'a list"} \\

 Discriminator: &

   @{text "null \<Colon> 'a list \<Rightarrow> bool"} \\

 Selectors: &

   @{text "hd \<Colon> 'a list \<Rightarrow> 'a"} \\

 &

   @{text "tl \<Colon> 'a list \<Rightarrow> 'a list"} \\

 Set function: &

   @{text "set \<Colon> 'a list \<Rightarrow> 'a set"} \\

 Map function: &

   @{text "map \<Colon> ('a \<Rightarrow> 'b) \<Rightarrow> 'a list \<Rightarrow> 'b list"} \\

 Relator: &

   @{text "list_all2 \<Colon> ('a \<Rightarrow> 'b \<Rightarrow> bool) \<Rightarrow> 'a list \<Rightarrow> 'b list \<Rightarrow> bool"}

 \end{tabular}

 The discriminator @{const null} and the selectors @{const hd} and @{const tl}

 are characterized as follows:

 %

 \[@{thm list.collapse(1)[of xs, no_vars]}

   \qquad @{thm list.collapse(2)[of xs, no_vars]}\]

 %

 For two-constructor datatypes, a single discriminator constant is sufficient.

 The discriminator associated with @{const Cons} is simply

 @{term "\<lambda>xs. \<not> null xs"}.

 The @{text defaults} clause following the @{const Nil} constructor specifies a

 default value for selectors associated with other constructors. Here, it is used

 to ensure that the tail of the empty list is itself (instead of being left

 unspecified).

 Because @{const Nil} is nullary, it is also possible to use

 @{term "\<lambda>xs. xs = Nil"} as a discriminator. This is specified by

 entering ``@{text "="}'' instead of the identifier @{const null}. Although this

 may look appealing, the mixture of constructors and selectors in the

 characteristic theorems can lead Isabelle's automation to switch between the

 constructor and the destructor view in surprising ways.

 The usual mixfix syntax annotations are available for both types and

 constructors. For example:

 *}

 (*<*)

     end

 (*>*)

     datatype_new ('a, 'b) prod (infixr "*" 20) = Pair 'a 'b

 text {* \blankline *}

     datatype_new (set: 'a) list (map: map rel: list_all2) =

       null: Nil ("[]")

     | Cons (hd: 'a) (tl: "'a list") (infixr "#" 65)

 text {*

 \noindent

 Incidentally, this is how the traditional syntax can be set up:

 *}

     syntax "_list" :: "args \<Rightarrow> 'a list" ("[(_)]")

 text {* \blankline *}

     translations

       "[x, xs]" == "x # [xs]"

       "[x]" == "x # []"

 subsection {* Command Syntax

   \label{ssec:datatype-command-syntax} *}

 subsubsection {* \keyw{datatype\_new}

   \label{sssec:datatype-new} *}

 text {*

 \begin{matharray}{rcl}

   @{command_def "datatype_new"} & : & @{text "local_theory \<rightarrow> local_theory"}

 \end{matharray}

 @{rail "

   @@{command datatype_new} target? @{syntax dt_options}? \\

     (@{syntax dt_name} '=' (@{syntax ctor} + '|') + @'and')

   ;

   @{syntax_def dt_options}: '(' (('no_discs_sels' | 'no_code' | 'rep_compat') + ',') ')'

 "}

 The syntactic entity \synt{target} can be used to specify a local

 context---e.g., @{text "(in linorder)"}. It is documented in the Isar reference

 manual \cite{isabelle-isar-ref}.

 %

 The optional target is optionally followed by datatype-specific options:

 \begin{itemize}

 \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}

 \item

 The @{text "no_discs_sels"} option indicates that no discriminators or selectors

 should be generated.

 \item

 The @{text "no_code"} option indicates that the datatype should not be

 registered for code generation.

 \item

 The @{text "rep_compat"} option indicates that the generated names should

 contain optional (and normally not displayed) ``@{text "new."}'' components to

 prevent clashes with a later call to \keyw{rep\_datatype}. See

 Section~\ref{ssec:datatype-compatibility-issues} for details.

 \end{itemize}

 The left-hand sides of the datatype equations specify the name of the type to

 define, its type parameters, and additional information:

 @{rail "

   @{syntax_def dt_name}: @{syntax tyargs}? name @{syntax map_rel}? mixfix?

   ;

   @{syntax_def tyargs}: typefree | '(' ((name ':')? typefree + ',') ')'

   ;

   @{syntax_def map_rel}: '(' ((('map' | 'rel') ':' name) +) ')'

 "}

 \noindent

 The syntactic entity \synt{name} denotes an identifier, \synt{typefree}

 denotes fixed type variable (@{typ 'a}, @{typ 'b}, \ldots), and \synt{mixfix}

 denotes the usual parenthesized mixfix notation. They are documented in the Isar

 reference manual \cite{isabelle-isar-ref}.

 The optional names preceding the type variables allow to override the default

 names of the set functions (@{text set1_t}, \ldots, @{text setM_t}).

 Inside a mutually recursive specification, all defined datatypes must

 mention exactly the same type variables in the same order.

 @{rail "

   @{syntax_def ctor}: (name ':')? name (@{syntax ctor_arg} * ) \\

     @{syntax dt_sel_defaults}? mixfix?

 "}

 \medskip

 \noindent

 The main constituents of a constructor specification are the name of the

 constructor and the list of its argument types. An optional discriminator name

 can be supplied at the front to override the default name

 (@{text t.is_C\<^sub>j}).

 @{rail "

   @{syntax_def ctor_arg}: type | '(' name ':' type ')'

 "}

 \medskip

 \noindent

 In addition to the type of a constructor argument, it is possible to specify a

 name for the corresponding selector to override the default name

 (@{text un_C\<^sub>ji}). The same selector names can be reused for several

 constructors as long as they share the same type.

 @{rail "

   @{syntax_def dt_sel_defaults}: '(' 'defaults' (name ':' term +) ')'

 "}

 \noindent

 Given a constructor

 @{text "C \<Colon> \<sigma>\<^sub>1 \<Rightarrow> \<dots> \<Rightarrow> \<sigma>\<^sub>p \<Rightarrow> \<sigma>"},

 default values can be specified for any selector

 @{text "un_D \<Colon> \<sigma> \<Rightarrow> \<tau>"}

 associated with other constructors. The specified default value must be of type

 @{text "\<sigma>\<^sub>1 \<Rightarrow> \<dots> \<Rightarrow> \<sigma>\<^sub>p \<Rightarrow> \<tau>"}

 (i.e., it may depend on @{text C}'s arguments).

 *}

 subsubsection {* \keyw{datatype\_new\_compat}

   \label{sssec:datatype-new-compat} *}

 text {*

 \begin{matharray}{rcl}

   @{command_def "datatype_new_compat"} & : & @{text "local_theory \<rightarrow> local_theory"}

 \end{matharray}

 @{rail "

   @@{command datatype_new_compat} names

 "}

 \noindent

 The old datatype package provides some functionality that is not yet replicated

 in the new package:

 \begin{itemize}

 \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}

 \item It is integrated with \keyw{fun} and \keyw{function}

 \cite{isabelle-function}, Nitpick \cite{isabelle-nitpick}, Quickcheck,

 and other packages.

 \item It is extended by various add-ons, notably to produce instances of the

 @{const size} function.

 \end{itemize}

 \noindent

 New-style datatypes can in most cases be registered as old-style datatypes using

 @{command datatype_new_compat}. The \textit{names} argument is a space-separated

 list of type names that are mutually recursive. For example:

 *}

     datatype_new_compat even_nat odd_nat

 text {* \blankline *}

     thm even_nat_odd_nat.size

 text {* \blankline *}

     ML {* Datatype_Data.get_info @{theory} @{type_name even_nat} *}

 text {*

 A few remarks concern nested recursive datatypes only:

 \begin{itemize}

 \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}

 \item The old-style, nested-as-mutual induction rule, iterator theorems, and

 recursor theorems are generated under their usual names but with ``@{text

 "compat_"}'' prefixed (e.g., @{text compat_tree.induct}).

 \item All types through which recursion takes place must be new-style datatypes

 or the function type. In principle, it should be possible to support old-style

 datatypes as well, but the command does not support this yet (and there is

 currently no way to register old-style datatypes as new-style datatypes).

 \item The recursor produced for types that recurse through functions has a

 different signature than with the old package. This makes it impossible to use

 the old \keyw{primrec} command.

 \end{itemize}

 An alternative to @{command datatype_new_compat} is to use the old package's

 \keyw{rep\_datatype} command. The associated proof obligations must then be

 discharged manually.

 *}

 subsection {* Generated Constants

   \label{ssec:datatype-generated-constants} *}

 text {*

 Given a datatype @{text "('a\<^sub>1, \<dots>, 'a\<^sub>m) t"}

 with $m > 0$ live type variables and $n$ constructors

 @{text "t.C\<^sub>1"}, \ldots, @{text "t.C\<^sub>n"}, the

 following auxiliary constants are introduced:

 \begin{itemize}

 \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}

 \item \relax{Case combinator}: @{text t.case_t} (rendered using the familiar

 @{text case}--@{text of} syntax)

 \item \relax{Discriminators}: @{text "t.is_C\<^sub>1"}, \ldots,

 @{text "t.is_C\<^sub>n"}

 \item \relax{Selectors}:

 @{text t.un_C\<^sub>11}$, \ldots, @{text t.un_C\<^sub>1k\<^sub>1}, \\

 \phantom{\relax{Selectors:}} \quad\vdots \\

 \phantom{\relax{Selectors:}} @{text t.un_C\<^sub>n1}$, \ldots, @{text t.un_C\<^sub>nk\<^sub>n}.

 \item \relax{Set functions} (or \relax{natural transformations}):

 @{text set1_t}, \ldots, @{text t.setm_t}

 \item \relax{Map function} (or \relax{functorial action}): @{text t.map_t}

 \item \relax{Relator}: @{text t.rel_t}

 \item \relax{Iterator}: @{text t.fold_t}

 \item \relax{Recursor}: @{text t.rec_t}

 \end{itemize}

 \noindent

 The case combinator, discriminators, and selectors are collectively called

 \emph{destructors}. The prefix ``@{text "t."}'' is an optional component of the

 names and is normally hidden.

 *}

 subsection {* Generated Theorems

   \label{ssec:datatype-generated-theorems} *}

 text {*

 The characteristic theorems generated by @{command datatype_new} are grouped in

 three broad categories:

 \begin{itemize}

 \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}

 \item The \emph{free constructor theorems} are properties about the constructors

 and destructors that can be derived for any freely generated type. Internally,

 the derivation is performed by @{command wrap_free_constructors}.

 \item The \emph{functorial theorems} are properties of datatypes related to

 their BNF nature.

 \item The \emph{inductive theorems} are properties of datatypes related to

 their inductive nature.

 \end{itemize}

 \noindent

 The full list of named theorems can be obtained as usual by entering the

 command \keyw{print\_theorems} immediately after the datatype definition.

 This list normally excludes low-level theorems that reveal internal

 constructions. To make these accessible, add the line

 *}

     declare [[bnf_note_all]]

 (*<*)

     declare [[bnf_note_all = false]]

 (*>*)

 text {*

 \noindent

 to the top of the theory file.

 *}

 subsubsection {* Free Constructor Theorems

   \label{sssec:free-constructor-theorems} *}

 (*<*)

     consts nonnull :: 'a

 (*>*)

 text {*

 The free constructor theorems are partitioned in three subgroups. The first

 subgroup of properties is concerned with the constructors. They are listed below

 for @{typ "'a list"}:

 \begin{indentblock}

 \begin{description}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{inject} @{text "[iff, induct_simp]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.inject[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{distinct} @{text "[simp, induct_simp]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.distinct(1)[no_vars]} \\

 @{thm list.distinct(2)[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{exhaust} @{text "[cases t, case_names C\<^sub>1 \<dots> C\<^sub>n]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.exhaust[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{nchotomy}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.nchotomy[no_vars]}

 \end{description}

 \end{indentblock}

 \noindent

 In addition, these nameless theorems are registered as safe elimination rules:

 \begin{indentblock}

 \begin{description}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{distinct {\upshape[}THEN notE}@{text ", elim!"}\hthm{\upshape]}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.distinct(1)[THEN notE, elim!, no_vars]} \\

 @{thm list.distinct(2)[THEN notE, elim!, no_vars]}

 \end{description}

 \end{indentblock}

 \noindent

 The next subgroup is concerned with the case combinator:

 \begin{indentblock}

 \begin{description}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{case} @{text "[simp, code]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.case(1)[no_vars]} \\

 @{thm list.case(2)[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{case\_cong}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.case_cong[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{weak\_case\_cong} @{text "[cong]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.weak_case_cong[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{split}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.split[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{split\_asm}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.split_asm[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{splits} = @{text "split split_asm"}]

 \end{description}

 \end{indentblock}

 \noindent

 The third subgroup revolves around discriminators and selectors:

 \begin{indentblock}

 \begin{description}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{disc} @{text "[simp]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.disc(1)[no_vars]} \\

 @{thm list.disc(2)[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{discI}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.discI(1)[no_vars]} \\

 @{thm list.discI(2)[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{sel} @{text "[simp, code]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.sel(1)[no_vars]} \\

 @{thm list.sel(2)[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{collapse} @{text "[simp]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.collapse(1)[no_vars]} \\

 @{thm list.collapse(2)[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{disc\_exclude} @{text "[dest]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 These properties are missing for @{typ "'a list"} because there is only one

 proper discriminator. Had the datatype been introduced with a second

 discriminator called @{const nonnull}, they would have read thusly: \\[\jot]

 @{prop "null list \<Longrightarrow> \<not> nonnull list"} \\

 @{prop "nonnull list \<Longrightarrow> \<not> null list"}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{disc\_exhaust} @{text "[case_names C\<^sub>1 \<dots> C\<^sub>n]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.disc_exhaust[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{sel\_exhaust} @{text "[case_names C\<^sub>1 \<dots> C\<^sub>n]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.sel_exhaust[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{expand}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.expand[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{sel\_split}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.sel_split[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{sel\_split\_asm}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.sel_split_asm[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{case\_eq\_if}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.case_eq_if[no_vars]}

 \end{description}

 \end{indentblock}

 \noindent

 In addition, equational versions of @{text t.disc} are registered with the @{text "[code]"}

 attribute.

 *}

 subsubsection {* Functorial Theorems

   \label{sssec:functorial-theorems} *}

 text {*

 The functorial theorems are partitioned in two subgroups. The first subgroup

 consists of properties involving the constructors and either a set function, the

 map function, or the relator:

 \begin{indentblock}

 \begin{description}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{set} @{text "[simp, code]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.set(1)[no_vars]} \\

 @{thm list.set(2)[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{map} @{text "[simp, code]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.map(1)[no_vars]} \\

 @{thm list.map(2)[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{rel\_inject} @{text "[simp]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.rel_inject(1)[no_vars]} \\

 @{thm list.rel_inject(2)[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{rel\_distinct} @{text "[simp]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.rel_distinct(1)[no_vars]} \\

 @{thm list.rel_distinct(2)[no_vars]}

 \end{description}

 \end{indentblock}

 \noindent

 In addition, equational versions of @{text t.rel_inject} and @{text

 rel_distinct} are registered with the @{text "[code]"} attribute.

 The second subgroup consists of more abstract properties of the set functions,

 the map function, and the relator:

 \begin{indentblock}

 \begin{description}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{map\_comp}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.map_cong0[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{map\_cong} @{text "[fundef_cong]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.map_cong[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{map\_id}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.map_id[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{rel\_compp}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.rel_compp[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{rel\_conversep}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.rel_conversep[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{rel\_eq}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.rel_eq[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{rel\_flip}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.rel_flip[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{rel\_mono}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.rel_mono[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{set\_map}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.set_map[no_vars]}

 \end{description}

 \end{indentblock}

 *}

 subsubsection {* Inductive Theorems

   \label{sssec:inductive-theorems} *}

 text {*

 The inductive theorems are as follows:

 \begin{indentblock}

 \begin{description}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{induct} @{text "[induct t, case_names C\<^sub>1 \<dots> C\<^sub>n]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.induct[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t\<^sub>1_\<dots>_t\<^sub>m."}\hthm{induct} @{text "[case_names C\<^sub>1 \<dots> C\<^sub>n]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 Given $m > 1$ mutually recursive datatypes, this induction rule can be used to

 prove $m$ properties simultaneously.

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{fold} @{text "[simp, code]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.fold(1)[no_vars]} \\

 @{thm list.fold(2)[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{rec} @{text "[simp, code]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm list.rec(1)[no_vars]} \\

 @{thm list.rec(2)[no_vars]}

 \end{description}

 \end{indentblock}

 \noindent

 For convenience, @{command datatype_new} also provides the following collection:

 \begin{indentblock}

 \begin{description}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{simps} = @{text t.inject} @{text t.distinct} @{text t.case} @{text t.rec} @{text t.fold} @{text t.map} @{text t.rel_inject}] ~ \\

 @{text t.rel_distinct} @{text t.set}

 \end{description}

 \end{indentblock}

 *}

 subsection {* Compatibility Issues

   \label{ssec:datatype-compatibility-issues} *}

 text {*

 The command @{command datatype_new} has been designed to be highly compatible

 with the old \keyw{datatype}, to ease migration. There are nonetheless a few

 incompatibilities that may arise when porting to the new package:

 \begin{itemize}

 \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}

 \item \emph{The Standard ML interfaces are different.} Tools and extensions

 written to call the old ML interfaces will need to be adapted to the new

 interfaces. Little has been done so far in this direction. Whenever possible, it

 is recommended to use @{command datatype_new_compat} or \keyw{rep\_datatype}

 to register new-style datatypes as old-style datatypes.

 \item \emph{The constants @{text t_case} and @{text t_rec} are now called

 @{text case_t} and @{text rec_t}.}

 \item \emph{The recursor @{text rec_t} has a different signature for nested

 recursive datatypes.} In the old package, nested recursion through non-functions

 was internally reduced to mutual recursion. This reduction was visible in the

 type of the recursor, used by \keyw{primrec}. Recursion through functions was

 handled specially. In the new package, nested recursion (for functions and

 non-functions) is handled in a more modular fashion. The old-style recursor can

 be generated on demand using @{command primrec_new}, as explained in

 Section~\ref{sssec:primrec-nested-as-mutual-recursion}, if the recursion is via

 new-style datatypes.

 \item \emph{Accordingly, the induction rule is different for nested recursive

 datatypes.} Again, the old-style induction rule can be generated on demand using

 @{command primrec_new}, as explained in

 Section~\ref{sssec:primrec-nested-as-mutual-recursion}, if the recursion is via

 new-style datatypes.

 \item \emph{The internal constructions are completely different.} Proof texts

 that unfold the definition of constants introduced by \keyw{datatype} will be

 difficult to port.

 \item \emph{A few theorems have different names.}

 The properties @{text t.cases} and @{text t.recs} have been renamed

 @{text t.case} and @{text t.rec}. For non-mutually recursive datatypes,

 @{text t.inducts} is available as @{text t.induct}.

 For $m > 1$ mutually recursive datatypes,

 @{text "t\<^sub>1_\<dots>_t\<^sub>m.inducts(i)"} has been renamed

 @{text "t\<^sub>i.induct"}.

 \item \emph{The @{text t.simps} collection has been extended.}

 Previously available theorems are available at the same index.

 \item \emph{Variables in generated properties have different names.} This is

 rarely an issue, except in proof texts that refer to variable names in the

 @{text "[where \<dots>]"} attribute. The solution is to use the more robust

 @{text "[of \<dots>]"} syntax.

 \end{itemize}

 In the other direction, there is currently no way to register old-style

 datatypes as new-style datatypes. If the goal is to define new-style datatypes

 with nested recursion through old-style datatypes, the old-style

 datatypes can be registered as a BNF

 (Section~\ref{sec:registering-bounded-natural-functors}). If the goal is

 to derive discriminators and selectors, this can be achieved using @{command

 wrap_free_constructors}

 (Section~\ref{sec:deriving-destructors-and-theorems-for-free-constructors}).

 *}

 section {* Defining Recursive Functions

   \label{sec:defining-recursive-functions} *}

 text {*

 Recursive functions over datatypes can be specified using the @{command

 primrec_new} command, which supports primitive recursion, or using the more

 general \keyw{fun} and \keyw{function} commands. Here, the focus is on @{command

 primrec_new}; the other two commands are described in a separate tutorial

 \cite{isabelle-function}.

 %%% TODO: partial_function

 *}

 subsection {* Introductory Examples

   \label{ssec:primrec-introductory-examples} *}

 text {*

 Primitive recursion is illustrated through concrete examples based on the

 datatypes defined in Section~\ref{ssec:datatype-introductory-examples}. More

 examples can be found in the directory \verb|~~/src/HOL/BNF/Examples|.

 *}

 subsubsection {* Nonrecursive Types

   \label{sssec:primrec-nonrecursive-types} *}

 text {*

 Primitive recursion removes one layer of constructors on the left-hand side in

 each equation. For example:

 *}

     primrec_new bool_of_trool :: "trool \<Rightarrow> bool" where

       "bool_of_trool Faalse \<longleftrightarrow> False" |

       "bool_of_trool Truue \<longleftrightarrow> True"

 text {* \blankline *}

     primrec_new the_list :: "'a option \<Rightarrow> 'a list" where

       "the_list None = []" |

       "the_list (Some a) = [a]"

 text {* \blankline *}

     primrec_new the_default :: "'a \<Rightarrow> 'a option \<Rightarrow> 'a" where

       "the_default d None = d" |

       "the_default _ (Some a) = a"

 text {* \blankline *}

     primrec_new mirrror :: "('a, 'b, 'c) triple \<Rightarrow> ('c, 'b, 'a) triple" where

       "mirrror (Triple a b c) = Triple c b a"

 text {*

 \noindent

 The equations can be specified in any order, and it is acceptable to leave out

 some cases, which are then unspecified. Pattern matching on the left-hand side

 is restricted to a single datatype, which must correspond to the same argument

 in all equations.

 *}

 subsubsection {* Simple Recursion

   \label{sssec:primrec-simple-recursion} *}

 text {*

 For simple recursive types, recursive calls on a constructor argument are

 allowed on the right-hand side:

 *}

     primrec_new replicate :: "nat \<Rightarrow> 'a \<Rightarrow> 'a list" where

       "replicate Zero _ = []" |

       "replicate (Suc n) x = x # replicate n x"

 text {* \blankline *}

     primrec_new at :: "'a list \<Rightarrow> nat \<Rightarrow> 'a" where

       "at (x # xs) j =

          (case j of

             Zero \<Rightarrow> x

           | Suc j' \<Rightarrow> at xs j')"

 text {* \blankline *}

     primrec_new (*<*)(in early) (*>*)tfold :: "('a \<Rightarrow> 'b \<Rightarrow> 'b) \<Rightarrow> ('a, 'b) tlist \<Rightarrow> 'b" where

       "tfold _ (TNil y) = y" |

       "tfold f (TCons x xs) = f x (tfold f xs)"

 text {*

 \noindent

 Pattern matching is only available for the argument on which the recursion takes

 place. Fortunately, it is easy to generate pattern-maching equations using the

 \keyw{simps\_of\_case} command provided by the theory

 \verb|~~/src/HOL/Library/Simps_Case_Conv|.

 *}

     simps_of_case at_simps: at.simps

 text {*

 This generates the lemma collection @{thm [source] at_simps}:

 %

 \[@{thm at_simps(1)[no_vars]}

   \qquad @{thm at_simps(2)[no_vars]}\]

 %

 The next example is defined using \keyw{fun} to escape the syntactic

 restrictions imposed on primitive recursive functions. The

 @{command datatype_new_compat} command is needed to register new-style datatypes

 for use with \keyw{fun} and \keyw{function}

 (Section~\ref{sssec:datatype-new-compat}):

 *}

     datatype_new_compat nat

 text {* \blankline *}

     fun at_least_two :: "nat \<Rightarrow> bool" where

       "at_least_two (Suc (Suc _)) \<longleftrightarrow> True" |

       "at_least_two _ \<longleftrightarrow> False"

 subsubsection {* Mutual Recursion

   \label{sssec:primrec-mutual-recursion} *}

 text {*

 The syntax for mutually recursive functions over mutually recursive datatypes

 is straightforward:

 *}

     primrec_new

       nat_of_even_nat :: "even_nat \<Rightarrow> nat" and

       nat_of_odd_nat :: "odd_nat \<Rightarrow> nat"

     where

       "nat_of_even_nat Even_Zero = Zero" |

       "nat_of_even_nat (Even_Suc n) = Suc (nat_of_odd_nat n)" |

       "nat_of_odd_nat (Odd_Suc n) = Suc (nat_of_even_nat n)"

 text {* \blankline *}

     primrec_new

       eval\<^sub>e :: "('a \<Rightarrow> int) \<Rightarrow> ('b \<Rightarrow> int) \<Rightarrow> ('a, 'b) exp \<Rightarrow> int" and

       eval\<^sub>t :: "('a \<Rightarrow> int) \<Rightarrow> ('b \<Rightarrow> int) \<Rightarrow> ('a, 'b) trm \<Rightarrow> int" and

       eval\<^sub>f :: "('a \<Rightarrow> int) \<Rightarrow> ('b \<Rightarrow> int) \<Rightarrow> ('a, 'b) fct \<Rightarrow> int"

     where

       "eval\<^sub>e \<gamma> \<xi> (Term t) = eval\<^sub>t \<gamma> \<xi> t" |

       "eval\<^sub>e \<gamma> \<xi> (Sum t e) = eval\<^sub>t \<gamma> \<xi> t + eval\<^sub>e \<gamma> \<xi> e" |

       "eval\<^sub>t \<gamma> \<xi> (Factor f) = eval\<^sub>f \<gamma> \<xi> f" |

       "eval\<^sub>t \<gamma> \<xi> (Prod f t) = eval\<^sub>f \<gamma> \<xi> f + eval\<^sub>t \<gamma> \<xi> t" |

       "eval\<^sub>f \<gamma> _ (Const a) = \<gamma> a" |

       "eval\<^sub>f _ \<xi> (Var b) = \<xi> b" |

       "eval\<^sub>f \<gamma> \<xi> (Expr e) = eval\<^sub>e \<gamma> \<xi> e"

 text {*

 \noindent

 Mutual recursion is possible within a single type, using \keyw{fun}:

 *}

     fun

       even :: "nat \<Rightarrow> bool" and

       odd :: "nat \<Rightarrow> bool"

     where

       "even Zero = True" |

       "even (Suc n) = odd n" |

       "odd Zero = False" |

       "odd (Suc n) = even n"

 subsubsection {* Nested Recursion

   \label{sssec:primrec-nested-recursion} *}

 text {*

 In a departure from the old datatype package, nested recursion is normally

 handled via the map functions of the nesting type constructors. For example,

 recursive calls are lifted to lists using @{const map}:

 *}

 (*<*)

     datatype_new 'a tree\<^sub>f\<^sub>f = Node\<^sub>f\<^sub>f (lbl\<^sub>f\<^sub>f: 'a) (sub\<^sub>f\<^sub>f: "'a tree\<^sub>f\<^sub>f list")

 (*>*)

     primrec_new at\<^sub>f\<^sub>f :: "'a tree\<^sub>f\<^sub>f \<Rightarrow> nat list \<Rightarrow> 'a" where

       "at\<^sub>f\<^sub>f (Node\<^sub>f\<^sub>f a ts) js =

          (case js of

             [] \<Rightarrow> a

           | j # js' \<Rightarrow> at (map (\<lambda>t. at\<^sub>f\<^sub>f t js') ts) j)"

 text {*

 \noindent

 The next example features recursion through the @{text option} type. Although

 @{text option} is not a new-style datatype, it is registered as a BNF with the

 map function @{const map_option}:

 *}

     primrec_new (*<*)(in early) (*>*)sum_btree :: "('a\<Colon>{zero,plus}) btree \<Rightarrow> 'a" where

       "sum_btree (BNode a lt rt) =

          a + the_default 0 (map_option sum_btree lt) +

            the_default 0 (map_option sum_btree rt)"

 text {*

 \noindent

 The same principle applies for arbitrary type constructors through which

 recursion is possible. Notably, the map function for the function type

 (@{text \<Rightarrow>}) is simply composition (@{text "op \<circ>"}):

 *}

     primrec_new (*<*)(in early) (*>*)relabel_ft :: "('a \<Rightarrow> 'a) \<Rightarrow> 'a ftree \<Rightarrow> 'a ftree" where

       "relabel_ft f (FTLeaf x) = FTLeaf (f x)" |

       "relabel_ft f (FTNode g) = FTNode (relabel_ft f \<circ> g)"

 text {*

 \noindent

 For convenience, recursion through functions can also be expressed using

 $\lambda$-abstractions and function application rather than through composition.

 For example:

 *}

     primrec_new relabel_ft :: "('a \<Rightarrow> 'a) \<Rightarrow> 'a ftree \<Rightarrow> 'a ftree" where

       "relabel_ft f (FTLeaf x) = FTLeaf (f x)" |

       "relabel_ft f (FTNode g) = FTNode (\<lambda>x. relabel_ft f (g x))"

 text {* \blankline *}

     primrec_new subtree_ft :: "'a \<Rightarrow> 'a ftree \<Rightarrow> 'a ftree" where

       "subtree_ft x (FTNode g) = g x"

 text {*

 \noindent

 For recursion through curried $n$-ary functions, $n$ applications of

 @{term "op \<circ>"} are necessary. The examples below illustrate the case where

 $n = 2$:

 *}

     datatype_new 'a ftree2 = FTLeaf2 'a | FTNode2 "'a \<Rightarrow> 'a \<Rightarrow> 'a ftree2"

 text {* \blankline *}

     primrec_new (*<*)(in early) (*>*)relabel_ft2 :: "('a \<Rightarrow> 'a) \<Rightarrow> 'a ftree2 \<Rightarrow> 'a ftree2" where

       "relabel_ft2 f (FTLeaf2 x) = FTLeaf2 (f x)" |

       "relabel_ft2 f (FTNode2 g) = FTNode2 (op \<circ> (op \<circ> (relabel_ft2 f)) g)"

 text {* \blankline *}

     primrec_new relabel_ft2 :: "('a \<Rightarrow> 'a) \<Rightarrow> 'a ftree2 \<Rightarrow> 'a ftree2" where

       "relabel_ft2 f (FTLeaf2 x) = FTLeaf2 (f x)" |

       "relabel_ft2 f (FTNode2 g) = FTNode2 (\<lambda>x y. relabel_ft2 f (g x y))"

 text {* \blankline *}

     primrec_new subtree_ft2 :: "'a \<Rightarrow> 'a \<Rightarrow> 'a ftree2 \<Rightarrow> 'a ftree2" where

       "subtree_ft2 x y (FTNode2 g) = g x y"

 subsubsection {* Nested-as-Mutual Recursion

   \label{sssec:primrec-nested-as-mutual-recursion} *}

 (*<*)

     locale n2m begin

 (*>*)

 text {*

 For compatibility with the old package, but also because it is sometimes

 convenient in its own right, it is possible to treat nested recursive datatypes

 as mutually recursive ones if the recursion takes place though new-style

 datatypes. For example:

 *}

     primrec_new

       at\<^sub>f\<^sub>f :: "'a tree\<^sub>f\<^sub>f \<Rightarrow> nat list \<Rightarrow> 'a" and

       ats\<^sub>f\<^sub>f :: "'a tree\<^sub>f\<^sub>f list \<Rightarrow> nat \<Rightarrow> nat list \<Rightarrow> 'a"

     where

       "at\<^sub>f\<^sub>f (Node\<^sub>f\<^sub>f a ts) js =

          (case js of

             [] \<Rightarrow> a

           | j # js' \<Rightarrow> ats\<^sub>f\<^sub>f ts j js')" |

       "ats\<^sub>f\<^sub>f (t # ts) j =

          (case j of

             Zero \<Rightarrow> at\<^sub>f\<^sub>f t

           | Suc j' \<Rightarrow> ats\<^sub>f\<^sub>f ts j')"

 text {*

 \noindent

 Appropriate induction rules are generated as

 @{thm [source] at\<^sub>f\<^sub>f.induct},

 @{thm [source] ats\<^sub>f\<^sub>f.induct}, and

 @{thm [source] at\<^sub>f\<^sub>f_ats\<^sub>f\<^sub>f.induct}. The

 induction rules and the underlying recursors are generated on a per-need basis

 and are kept in a cache to speed up subsequent definitions.

 Here is a second example:

 *}

     primrec_new

       sum_btree :: "('a\<Colon>{zero,plus}) btree \<Rightarrow> 'a" and

       sum_btree_option :: "'a btree option \<Rightarrow> 'a"

     where

       "sum_btree (BNode a lt rt) =

          a + sum_btree_option lt + sum_btree_option rt" |

       "sum_btree_option None = 0" |

       "sum_btree_option (Some t) = sum_btree t"

 text {*

 %  * can pretend a nested type is mutually recursive (if purely inductive)

 %  * avoids the higher-order map

 %  * e.g.

 %  * this can always be avoided;

 %     * e.g. in our previous example, we first mapped the recursive

 %       calls, then we used a generic at function to retrieve the result

 %

 %  * there's no hard-and-fast rule of when to use one or the other,

 %    just like there's no rule when to use fold and when to use

 %    primrec_new

 %

 %  * higher-order approach, considering nesting as nesting, is more

 %    compositional -- e.g. we saw how we could reuse an existing polymorphic

 %    at or the_default, whereas @{const ats\<^sub>f\<^sub>f} is much more specific

 %

 %  * but:

 %     * is perhaps less intuitive, because it requires higher-order thinking

 %     * may seem inefficient, and indeed with the code generator the

 %       mutually recursive version might be nicer

 %     * is somewhat indirect -- must apply a map first, then compute a result

 %       (cannot mix)

 %     * the auxiliary functions like @{const ats\<^sub>f\<^sub>f} are sometimes useful in own right

 %

 %  * impact on automation unclear

 %

 *}

 (*<*)

     end

 (*>*)

 subsection {* Command Syntax

   \label{ssec:primrec-command-syntax} *}

 subsubsection {* \keyw{primrec\_new}

   \label{sssec:primrec-new} *}

 text {*

 \begin{matharray}{rcl}

   @{command_def "primrec_new"} & : & @{text "local_theory \<rightarrow> local_theory"}

 \end{matharray}

 @{rail "

   @@{command primrec_new} target? fixes \\ @'where' (@{syntax pr_equation} + '|')

   ;

   @{syntax_def pr_equation}: thmdecl? prop

 "}

 *}

 (*

 subsection {* Generated Theorems

   \label{ssec:primrec-generated-theorems} *}

 text {*

 %  * synthesized nonrecursive definition

 %  * user specification is rederived from it, exactly as entered

 %

 %  * induct

 %    * mutualized

 %    * without some needless induction hypotheses if not used

 %  * fold, rec

 %    * mutualized

 *}

 *)

 subsection {* Recursive Default Values for Selectors

   \label{ssec:primrec-recursive-default-values-for-selectors} *}

 text {*

 A datatype selector @{text un_D} can have a default value for each constructor

 on which it is not otherwise specified. Occasionally, it is useful to have the

 default value be defined recursively. This produces a chicken-and-egg situation

 that may seem unsolvable, because the datatype is not introduced yet at the

 moment when the selectors are introduced. Of course, we can always define the

 selectors manually afterward, but we then have to state and prove all the

 characteristic theorems ourselves instead of letting the package do it.

 Fortunately, there is a fairly elegant workaround that relies on overloading and

 that avoids the tedium of manual derivations:

 \begin{enumerate}

 \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}

 \item

 Introduce a fully unspecified constant @{text "un_D\<^sub>0 \<Colon> 'a"} using

 @{keyword consts}.

 \item

 Define the datatype, specifying @{text "un_D\<^sub>0"} as the selector's default

 value.

 \item

 Define the behavior of @{text "un_D\<^sub>0"} on values of the newly introduced

 datatype using the \keyw{overloading} command.

 \item

 Derive the desired equation on @{text un_D} from the characteristic equations

 for @{text "un_D\<^sub>0"}.

 \end{enumerate}

 \noindent

 The following example illustrates this procedure:

 *}

     consts termi\<^sub>0 :: 'a

 text {* \blankline *}

     datatype_new ('a, 'b) tlist =

       TNil (termi: 'b) (defaults ttl: TNil)

     | TCons (thd: 'a) (ttl : "('a, 'b) tlist") (defaults termi: "\<lambda>_ xs. termi\<^sub>0 xs")

 text {* \blankline *}

     overloading

       termi\<^sub>0 \<equiv> "termi\<^sub>0 \<Colon> ('a, 'b) tlist \<Rightarrow> 'b"

     begin

     primrec_new termi\<^sub>0 :: "('a, 'b) tlist \<Rightarrow> 'b" where

       "termi\<^sub>0 (TNil y) = y" |

       "termi\<^sub>0 (TCons x xs) = termi\<^sub>0 xs"

     end

 text {* \blankline *}

     lemma terminal_TCons[simp]: "termi (TCons x xs) = termi xs"

     by (cases xs) auto

 subsection {* Compatibility Issues

   \label{ssec:primrec-compatibility-issues} *}

 text {*

 The command @{command primrec_new} has been designed to be highly compatible

 with the old \keyw{primrec}, to ease migration. There is nonetheless at least

 one incompatibility that may arise when porting to the new package:

 \begin{itemize}

 \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}

 \item \emph{Some theorems have different names.}

 For $m > 1$ mutually recursive functions,

 @{text "f\<^sub>1_\<dots>_f\<^sub>m.simps"} has been broken down into separate

 subcollections @{text "f\<^sub>i.simps"}.

 \end{itemize}

 *}

 section {* Defining Codatatypes

   \label{sec:defining-codatatypes} *}

 text {*

 Codatatypes can be specified using the @{command codatatype} command. The

 command is first illustrated through concrete examples featuring different

 flavors of corecursion. More examples can be found in the directory

 \verb|~~/src/HOL/|\allowbreak\verb|BNF/Examples|. The

 \emph{Archive of Formal Proofs} also includes some useful codatatypes, notably

 for lazy lists \cite{lochbihler-2010}.

 *}

 subsection {* Introductory Examples

   \label{ssec:codatatype-introductory-examples} *}

 subsubsection {* Simple Corecursion

   \label{sssec:codatatype-simple-corecursion} *}

 text {*

 Noncorecursive codatatypes coincide with the corresponding datatypes, so they

 are useless in practice. \emph{Corecursive codatatypes} have the same syntax

 as recursive datatypes, except for the command name. For example, here is the

 definition of lazy lists:

 *}

     codatatype (lset: 'a) llist (map: lmap rel: llist_all2) =

       lnull: LNil (defaults ltl: LNil)

     | LCons (lhd: 'a) (ltl: "'a llist")

 text {*

 \noindent

 Lazy lists can be infinite, such as @{text "LCons 0 (LCons 0 (\<dots>))"} and

 @{text "LCons 0 (LCons 1 (LCons 2 (\<dots>)))"}. Here is a related type, that of

 infinite streams:

 *}

     codatatype (sset: 'a) stream (map: smap rel: stream_all2) =

       SCons (shd: 'a) (stl: "'a stream")

 text {*

 \noindent

 Another interesting type that can

 be defined as a codatatype is that of the extended natural numbers:

 *}

     codatatype enat = EZero | ESuc enat

 text {*

 \noindent

 This type has exactly one infinite element, @{text "ESuc (ESuc (ESuc (\<dots>)))"},

 that represents $\infty$. In addition, it has finite values of the form

 @{text "ESuc (\<dots> (ESuc EZero)\<dots>)"}.

 Here is an example with many constructors:

 *}

     codatatype 'a process =

       Fail

     | Skip (cont: "'a process")

     | Action (prefix: 'a) (cont: "'a process")

     | Choice (left: "'a process") (right: "'a process")

 text {*

 \noindent

 Notice that the @{const cont} selector is associated with both @{const Skip}

 and @{const Action}.

 *}

 subsubsection {* Mutual Corecursion

   \label{sssec:codatatype-mutual-corecursion} *}

 text {*

 \noindent

 The example below introduces a pair of \emph{mutually corecursive} types:

 *}

     codatatype even_enat = Even_EZero | Even_ESuc odd_enat

     and odd_enat = Odd_ESuc even_enat

 subsubsection {* Nested Corecursion

   \label{sssec:codatatype-nested-corecursion} *}

 text {*

 \noindent

 The next examples feature \emph{nested corecursion}:

 *}

     codatatype 'a tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>i = Node\<^sub>i\<^sub>i (lbl\<^sub>i\<^sub>i: 'a) (sub\<^sub>i\<^sub>i: "'a tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>i llist")

 text {* \blankline *}

     codatatype 'a tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>s = Node\<^sub>i\<^sub>s (lbl\<^sub>i\<^sub>s: 'a) (sub\<^sub>i\<^sub>s: "'a tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>s fset")

 text {* \blankline *}

     codatatype 'a state_machine =

       State_Machine (accept: bool) (trans: "'a \<Rightarrow> 'a state_machine")

 subsection {* Command Syntax

   \label{ssec:codatatype-command-syntax} *}

 subsubsection {* \keyw{codatatype}

   \label{sssec:codatatype} *}

 text {*

 \begin{matharray}{rcl}

   @{command_def "codatatype"} & : & @{text "local_theory \<rightarrow> local_theory"}

 \end{matharray}

 @{rail "

   @@{command codatatype} target? \\

     (@{syntax dt_name} '=' (@{syntax ctor} + '|') + @'and')

 "}

 \noindent

 Definitions of codatatypes have almost exactly the same syntax as for datatypes

 (Section~\ref{ssec:datatype-command-syntax}). The @{text "no_discs_sels"} option

 is not available, because destructors are a crucial notion for codatatypes.

 *}

 subsection {* Generated Constants

   \label{ssec:codatatype-generated-constants} *}

 text {*

 Given a codatatype @{text "('a\<^sub>1, \<dots>, 'a\<^sub>m) t"}

 with $m > 0$ live type variables and $n$ constructors @{text "t.C\<^sub>1"},

 \ldots, @{text "t.C\<^sub>n"}, the same auxiliary constants are generated as for

 datatypes (Section~\ref{ssec:datatype-generated-constants}), except that the

 iterator and the recursor are replaced by dual concepts:

 \begin{itemize}

 \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}

 \item \relax{Coiterator}: @{text unfold_t}

 \item \relax{Corecursor}: @{text corec_t}

 \end{itemize}

 *}

 subsection {* Generated Theorems

   \label{ssec:codatatype-generated-theorems} *}

 text {*

 The characteristic theorems generated by @{command codatatype} are grouped in

 three broad categories:

 \begin{itemize}

 \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}

 \item The \emph{free constructor theorems} are properties about the constructors

 and destructors that can be derived for any freely generated type.

 \item The \emph{functorial theorems} are properties of datatypes related to

 their BNF nature.

 \item The \emph{coinductive theorems} are properties of datatypes related to

 their coinductive nature.

 \end{itemize}

 \noindent

 The first two categories are exactly as for datatypes and are described in

 Sections

 \ref{sssec:free-constructor-theorems}~and~\ref{sssec:functorial-theorems}.

 *}

 subsubsection {* Coinductive Theorems

   \label{sssec:coinductive-theorems} *}

 text {*

 The coinductive theorems are listed below for @{typ "'a llist"}:

 \begin{indentblock}

 \begin{description}

 \item[\begin{tabular}{@ {}l@ {}}

   @{text "t."}\hthm{coinduct} @{text "[coinduct t, consumes m, case_names t\<^sub>1 \<dots> t\<^sub>m,"} \\

   \phantom{@{text "t."}\hthm{coinduct} @{text "["}}@{text "case_conclusion D\<^sub>1 \<dots> D\<^sub>n]"}\rm:

 \end{tabular}] ~ \\

 @{thm llist.coinduct[no_vars]}

 \item[\begin{tabular}{@ {}l@ {}}

   @{text "t."}\hthm{strong\_coinduct} @{text "[consumes m, case_names t\<^sub>1 \<dots> t\<^sub>m,"} \\

   \phantom{@{text "t."}\hthm{strong\_coinduct} @{text "["}}@{text "case_conclusion D\<^sub>1 \<dots> D\<^sub>n]"}\rm:

 \end{tabular}] ~ \\

 @{thm llist.strong_coinduct[no_vars]}

 \item[\begin{tabular}{@ {}l@ {}}

   @{text "t\<^sub>1_\<dots>_t\<^sub>m."}\hthm{coinduct} @{text "[case_names t\<^sub>1 \<dots> t\<^sub>m, case_conclusion D\<^sub>1 \<dots> D\<^sub>n]"} \\

   @{text "t\<^sub>1_\<dots>_t\<^sub>m."}\hthm{strong\_coinduct} @{text "[case_names t\<^sub>1 \<dots> t\<^sub>m,"} \\

   \phantom{@{text "t\<^sub>1_\<dots>_t\<^sub>m."}\hthm{strong\_coinduct} @{text "["}}@{text "case_conclusion D\<^sub>1 \<dots> D\<^sub>n]"}\rm:

 \end{tabular}] ~ \\

 Given $m > 1$ mutually corecursive codatatypes, these coinduction rules can be

 used to prove $m$ properties simultaneously.

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{unfold}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm llist.unfold(1)[no_vars]} \\

 @{thm llist.unfold(2)[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{corec}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm llist.corec(1)[no_vars]} \\

 @{thm llist.corec(2)[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{disc\_unfold}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm llist.disc_unfold(1)[no_vars]} \\

 @{thm llist.disc_unfold(2)[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{disc\_corec}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm llist.disc_corec(1)[no_vars]} \\

 @{thm llist.disc_corec(2)[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{disc\_unfold\_iff} @{text "[simp]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm llist.disc_unfold_iff(1)[no_vars]} \\

 @{thm llist.disc_unfold_iff(2)[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{disc\_corec\_iff} @{text "[simp]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm llist.disc_corec_iff(1)[no_vars]} \\

 @{thm llist.disc_corec_iff(2)[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{sel\_unfold} @{text "[simp]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm llist.sel_unfold(1)[no_vars]} \\

 @{thm llist.sel_unfold(2)[no_vars]}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{sel\_corec} @{text "[simp]"}\rm:] ~ \\

 @{thm llist.sel_corec(1)[no_vars]} \\

 @{thm llist.sel_corec(2)[no_vars]}

 \end{description}

 \end{indentblock}

 \noindent

 For convenience, @{command codatatype} also provides the following collection:

 \begin{indentblock}

 \begin{description}

 \item[@{text "t."}\hthm{simps} = @{text t.inject} @{text t.distinct} @{text t.case} @{text t.disc_corec} @{text t.disc_corec_iff}] ~ \\

 @{text t.sel_corec} @{text t.disc_unfold} @{text t.disc_unfold_iff} @{text t.sel_unfold} @{text t.map} \\

 @{text t.rel_inject} @{text t.rel_distinct} @{text t.set}

 \end{description}

 \end{indentblock}

 *}

 section {* Defining Corecursive Functions

   \label{sec:defining-corecursive-functions} *}

 text {*

 Corecursive functions can be specified using the @{command primcorec} and

 \keyw{prim\-corec\-ursive} commands, which support primitive corecursion, or

 using the more general \keyw{partial\_function} command. Here, the focus is on

 the first two. More examples can be found in the directory

 \verb|~~/src/HOL/BNF/Examples|.

 Whereas recursive functions consume datatypes one constructor at a time,

 corecursive functions construct codatatypes one constructor at a time.

 Partly reflecting a lack of agreement among proponents of coalgebraic methods,

 Isabelle supports three competing syntaxes for specifying a function $f$:

 \begin{itemize}

 \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}

 \abovedisplayskip=.5\abovedisplayskip

 \belowdisplayskip=.5\belowdisplayskip

 \item The \emph{destructor view} specifies $f$ by implications of the form

 \[@{text "\<dots> \<Longrightarrow> is_C\<^sub>j (f x\<^sub>1 \<dots> x\<^sub>n)"}\] and

 equations of the form

 \[@{text "un_C\<^sub>ji (f x\<^sub>1 \<dots> x\<^sub>n) = \<dots>"}\]

 This style is popular in the coalgebraic literature.

 \item The \emph{constructor view} specifies $f$ by equations of the form

 \[@{text "\<dots> \<Longrightarrow> f x\<^sub>1 \<dots> x\<^sub>n = C\<^sub>j \<dots>"}\]

 This style is often more concise than the previous one.

 \item The \emph{code view} specifies $f$ by a single equation of the form

 \[@{text "f x\<^sub>1 \<dots> x\<^sub>n = \<dots>"}\]

 with restrictions on the format of the right-hand side. Lazy functional

 programming languages such as Haskell support a generalized version of this

 style.

 \end{itemize}

 All three styles are available as input syntax. Whichever syntax is chosen,

 characteristic theorems for all three styles are generated.

 %%% TODO: partial_function? E.g. for defining tail recursive function on lazy

 %%% lists (cf. terminal0 in TLList.thy)

 *}

 subsection {* Introductory Examples

   \label{ssec:primcorec-introductory-examples} *}

 text {*

 Primitive corecursion is illustrated through concrete examples based on the

 codatatypes defined in Section~\ref{ssec:codatatype-introductory-examples}. More

 examples can be found in the directory \verb|~~/src/HOL/BNF/Examples|. The code

 view is favored in the examples below. Sections

 \ref{ssec:primrec-constructor-view} and \ref{ssec:primrec-destructor-view}

 present the same examples expressed using the constructor and destructor views.

 *}

 subsubsection {* Simple Corecursion

   \label{sssec:primcorec-simple-corecursion} *}

 text {*

 Following the code view, corecursive calls are allowed on the right-hand side as

 long as they occur under a constructor, which itself appears either directly to

 the right of the equal sign or in a conditional expression:

 *}

     primcorec literate :: "('a \<Rightarrow> 'a) \<Rightarrow> 'a \<Rightarrow> 'a llist" where

       "literate g x = LCons x (literate g (g x))"

 text {* \blankline *}

     primcorec siterate :: "('a \<Rightarrow> 'a) \<Rightarrow> 'a \<Rightarrow> 'a stream" where

       "siterate g x = SCons x (siterate g (g x))"

 text {*

 \noindent

 The constructor ensures that progress is made---i.e., the function is

 \emph{productive}. The above functions compute the infinite lazy list or stream

 @{text "[x, g x, g (g x), \<dots>]"}. Productivity guarantees that prefixes

 @{text "[x, g x, g (g x), \<dots>, (g ^^ k) x]"} of arbitrary finite length

 @{text k} can be computed by unfolding the code equation a finite number of

 times.

 Corecursive functions construct codatatype values, but nothing prevents them

 from also consuming such values. The following function drops every second

 element in a stream:

 *}

     primcorec every_snd :: "'a stream \<Rightarrow> 'a stream" where

       "every_snd s = SCons (shd s) (stl (stl s))"

 text {*

 \noindent

 Constructs such as @{text "let"}---@{text "in"}, @{text

 "if"}---@{text "then"}---@{text "else"}, and @{text "case"}---@{text "of"} may

 appear around constructors that guard corecursive calls:

 *}

     primcorec lappend :: "'a llist \<Rightarrow> 'a llist \<Rightarrow> 'a llist" where

       "lappend xs ys =

          (case xs of

             LNil \<Rightarrow> ys

           | LCons x xs' \<Rightarrow> LCons x (lappend xs' ys))"

 text {*

 \noindent

 Pattern matching is not supported by @{command primcorec}. Fortunately, it is

 easy to generate pattern-maching equations using the \keyw{simps\_of\_case}

 command provided by the theory \verb|~~/src/HOL/Library/Simps_Case_Conv|.

 *}

     simps_of_case lappend_simps: lappend.code

 text {*

 This generates the lemma collection @{thm [source] lappend_simps}:

 %

 \[@{thm lappend_simps(1)[no_vars]}

   \qquad @{thm lappend_simps(2)[no_vars]}\]

 %

 Corecursion is useful to specify not only functions but also infinite objects:

 *}

     primcorec infty :: enat where

       "infty = ESuc infty"

 text {*

 \noindent

 The example below constructs a pseudorandom process value. It takes a stream of

 actions (@{text s}), a pseudorandom function generator (@{text f}), and a

 pseudorandom seed (@{text n}):

 *}

     primcorec

       random_process :: "'a stream \<Rightarrow> (int \<Rightarrow> int) \<Rightarrow> int \<Rightarrow> 'a process"

     where

       "random_process s f n =

          (if n mod 4 = 0 then

             Fail

           else if n mod 4 = 1 then

             Skip (random_process s f (f n))

           else if n mod 4 = 2 then

             Action (shd s) (random_process (stl s) f (f n))

           else

             Choice (random_process (every_snd s) (f \<circ> f) (f n))

               (random_process (every_snd (stl s)) (f \<circ> f) (f (f n))))"

 text {*

 \noindent

 The main disadvantage of the code view is that the conditions are tested

 sequentially. This is visible in the generated theorems. The constructor and

 destructor views offer nonsequential alternatives.

 *}

 subsubsection {* Mutual Corecursion

   \label{sssec:primcorec-mutual-corecursion} *}

 text {*

 The syntax for mutually corecursive functions over mutually corecursive

 datatypes is unsurprising:

 *}

     primcorec

       even_infty :: even_enat and

       odd_infty :: odd_enat

     where

       "even_infty = Even_ESuc odd_infty" |

       "odd_infty = Odd_ESuc even_infty"

 subsubsection {* Nested Corecursion

   \label{sssec:primcorec-nested-corecursion} *}

 text {*

 The next pair of examples generalize the @{const literate} and @{const siterate}

 functions (Section~\ref{sssec:primcorec-nested-corecursion}) to possibly

 infinite trees in which subnodes are organized either as a lazy list (@{text

 tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>i}) or as a finite set (@{text tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>s}). They rely on the map functions of

 the nesting type constructors to lift the corecursive calls:

 *}

     primcorec iterate\<^sub>i\<^sub>i :: "('a \<Rightarrow> 'a llist) \<Rightarrow> 'a \<Rightarrow> 'a tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>i" where

       "iterate\<^sub>i\<^sub>i g x = Node\<^sub>i\<^sub>i x (lmap (iterate\<^sub>i\<^sub>i g) (g x))"

 text {* \blankline *}

     primcorec iterate\<^sub>i\<^sub>s :: "('a \<Rightarrow> 'a fset) \<Rightarrow> 'a \<Rightarrow> 'a tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>s" where

       "iterate\<^sub>i\<^sub>s g x = Node\<^sub>i\<^sub>s x (fimage (iterate\<^sub>i\<^sub>s g) (g x))"

 text {*

 \noindent

 Both examples follow the usual format for constructor arguments associated

 with nested recursive occurrences of the datatype. Consider

 @{const iterate\<^sub>i\<^sub>i}. The term @{term "g x"} constructs an @{typ "'a llist"}

 value, which is turned into an @{typ "'a tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>i llist"} value using

 @{const lmap}.

 This format may sometimes feel artificial. The following function constructs

 a tree with a single, infinite branch from a stream:

 *}

     primcorec tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>i_of_stream :: "'a stream \<Rightarrow> 'a tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>i" where

       "tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>i_of_stream s =

          Node\<^sub>i\<^sub>i (shd s) (lmap tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>i_of_stream (LCons (stl s) LNil))"

 text {*

 \noindent

 Fortunately, it is easy to prove the following lemma, where the corecursive call

 is moved inside the lazy list constructor, thereby eliminating the need for

 @{const lmap}:

 *}

     lemma tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>i_of_stream_alt:

       "tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>i_of_stream s = Node\<^sub>i\<^sub>i (shd s) (LCons (tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>i_of_stream (stl s)) LNil)"

     by (subst tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>i_of_stream.code) simp

 text {*

 The next example illustrates corecursion through functions, which is a bit

 special. Deterministic finite automata (DFAs) are traditionally defined as

 5-tuples @{text "(Q, \<Sigma>, \<delta>, q\<^sub>0, F)"}, where @{text Q} is a finite set of states,

 @{text \<Sigma>} is a finite alphabet, @{text \<delta>} is a transition function, @{text q\<^sub>0}

 is an initial state, and @{text F} is a set of final states. The following

 function translates a DFA into a @{type state_machine}:

 *}

     primcorec

       (*<*)(in early) (*>*)sm_of_dfa :: "('q \<Rightarrow> 'a \<Rightarrow> 'q) \<Rightarrow> 'q set \<Rightarrow> 'q \<Rightarrow> 'a state_machine"

     where

       "sm_of_dfa \<delta> F q = State_Machine (q \<in> F) (sm_of_dfa \<delta> F \<circ> \<delta> q)"

 text {*

 \noindent

 The map function for the function type (@{text \<Rightarrow>}) is composition

 (@{text "op \<circ>"}). For convenience, corecursion through functions can

 also be expressed using $\lambda$-abstractions and function application rather

 than through composition. For example:

 *}

     primcorec

       sm_of_dfa :: "('q \<Rightarrow> 'a \<Rightarrow> 'q) \<Rightarrow> 'q set \<Rightarrow> 'q \<Rightarrow> 'a state_machine"

     where

       "sm_of_dfa \<delta> F q = State_Machine (q \<in> F) (\<lambda>a. sm_of_dfa \<delta> F (\<delta> q a))"

 text {* \blankline *}

     primcorec empty_sm :: "'a state_machine" where

       "empty_sm = State_Machine False (\<lambda>_. empty_sm)"

 text {* \blankline *}

     primcorec not_sm :: "'a state_machine \<Rightarrow> 'a state_machine" where

       "not_sm M = State_Machine (\<not> accept M) (\<lambda>a. not_sm (trans M a))"

 text {* \blankline *}

     primcorec

       or_sm :: "'a state_machine \<Rightarrow> 'a state_machine \<Rightarrow> 'a state_machine"

     where

       "or_sm M N = State_Machine (accept M \<or> accept N)

          (\<lambda>a. or_sm (trans M a) (trans N a))"

 text {*

 \noindent

 For recursion through curried $n$-ary functions, $n$ applications of

 @{term "op \<circ>"} are necessary. The examples below illustrate the case where

 $n = 2$:

 *}

     codatatype ('a, 'b) state_machine2 =

       State_Machine2 (accept2: bool) (trans2: "'a \<Rightarrow> 'b \<Rightarrow> ('a, 'b) state_machine2")

 text {* \blankline *}

     primcorec

       (*<*)(in early) (*>*)sm2_of_dfa :: "('q \<Rightarrow> 'a \<Rightarrow> 'b \<Rightarrow> 'q) \<Rightarrow> 'q set \<Rightarrow> 'q \<Rightarrow> ('a, 'b) state_machine2"

     where

       "sm2_of_dfa \<delta> F q = State_Machine2 (q \<in> F) (op \<circ> (op \<circ> (sm2_of_dfa \<delta> F)) (\<delta> q))"

 text {* \blankline *}

     primcorec

       sm2_of_dfa :: "('q \<Rightarrow> 'a \<Rightarrow> 'b \<Rightarrow> 'q) \<Rightarrow> 'q set \<Rightarrow> 'q \<Rightarrow> ('a, 'b) state_machine2"

     where

       "sm2_of_dfa \<delta> F q = State_Machine2 (q \<in> F) (\<lambda>a b. sm2_of_dfa \<delta> F (\<delta> q a b))"

 subsubsection {* Nested-as-Mutual Corecursion

   \label{sssec:primcorec-nested-as-mutual-corecursion} *}

 text {*

 Just as it is possible to recurse over nested recursive datatypes as if they

 were mutually recursive

 (Section~\ref{sssec:primrec-nested-as-mutual-recursion}), it is possible to

 pretend that nested codatatypes are mutually corecursive. For example:

 *}

 (*<*)

     context late

     begin

 (*>*)

     primcorec

       iterate\<^sub>i\<^sub>i :: "('a \<Rightarrow> 'a llist) \<Rightarrow> 'a \<Rightarrow> 'a tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>i" and

       iterates\<^sub>i\<^sub>i :: "('a \<Rightarrow> 'a llist) \<Rightarrow> 'a llist \<Rightarrow> 'a tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>i llist"

     where

       "iterate\<^sub>i\<^sub>i g x = Node\<^sub>i\<^sub>i x (iterates\<^sub>i\<^sub>i g (g x))" |

       "iterates\<^sub>i\<^sub>i g xs =

          (case xs of

             LNil \<Rightarrow> LNil

           | LCons x xs' \<Rightarrow> LCons (iterate\<^sub>i\<^sub>i g x) (iterates\<^sub>i\<^sub>i g xs'))"

 text {*

 \noindent

 Coinduction rules are generated as

 @{thm [source] iterate\<^sub>i\<^sub>i.coinduct},

 @{thm [source] iterates\<^sub>i\<^sub>i.coinduct}, and

 @{thm [source] iterate\<^sub>i\<^sub>i_iterates\<^sub>i\<^sub>i.coinduct}

 and analogously for @{text strong_coinduct}. These rules and the

 underlying corecursors are generated on a per-need basis and are kept in a cache

 to speed up subsequent definitions.

 *}

 (*<*)

     end

 (*>*)

 subsubsection {* Constructor View

   \label{ssec:primrec-constructor-view} *}

 (*<*)

     locale ctr_view

     begin

 (*>*)

 text {*

 The constructor view is similar to the code view, but there is one separate

 conditional equation per constructor rather than a single unconditional

 equation. Examples that rely on a single constructor, such as @{const literate}

 and @{const siterate}, are identical in both styles.

 Here is an example where there is a difference:

 *}

     primcorec lappend :: "'a llist \<Rightarrow> 'a llist \<Rightarrow> 'a llist" where

       "lnull xs \<Longrightarrow> lnull ys \<Longrightarrow> lappend xs ys = LNil" |

       "_ \<Longrightarrow> lappend xs ys = LCons (lhd (if lnull xs then ys else xs))

          (if xs = LNil then ltl ys else lappend (ltl xs) ys)"

 text {*

 \noindent

 With the constructor view, we must distinguish between the @{const LNil} and

 the @{const LCons} case. The condition for @{const LCons} is

 left implicit, as the negation of that for @{const LNil}.

 For this example, the constructor view is slighlty more involved than the

 code equation. Recall the code view version presented in

 Section~\ref{sssec:primcorec-simple-corecursion}.

 % TODO: \[{thm code_view.lappend.code}\]

 The constructor view requires us to analyze the second argument (@{term ys}).

 The code equation generated from the constructor view also suffers from this.

 % TODO: \[{thm lappend.code}\]

 In contrast, the next example is arguably more naturally expressed in the

 constructor view:

 *}

     primcorec

       random_process :: "'a stream \<Rightarrow> (int \<Rightarrow> int) \<Rightarrow> int \<Rightarrow> 'a process"

     where

       "n mod 4 = 0 \<Longrightarrow> random_process s f n = Fail" |

       "n mod 4 = 1 \<Longrightarrow>

          random_process s f n = Skip (random_process s f (f n))" |

       "n mod 4 = 2 \<Longrightarrow>

          random_process s f n = Action (shd s) (random_process (stl s) f (f n))" |

       "n mod 4 = 3 \<Longrightarrow>

          random_process s f n = Choice (random_process (every_snd s) f (f n))

            (random_process (every_snd (stl s)) f (f n))"

 (*<*)

     end

 (*>*)

 text {*

 \noindent

 Since there is no sequentiality, we can apply the equation for @{const Choice}

 without having first to discharge @{term "n mod (4\<Colon>int) \<noteq> 0"},

 @{term "n mod (4\<Colon>int) \<noteq> 1"}, and

 @{term "n mod (4\<Colon>int) \<noteq> 2"}.

 The price to pay for this elegance is that we must discharge exclusivity proof

 obligations, one for each pair of conditions

 @{term "(n mod (4\<Colon>int) = i, n mod (4\<Colon>int) = j)"}

 with @{term "i < j"}. If we prefer not to discharge any obligations, we can

 enable the @{text "sequential"} option. This pushes the problem to the users of

 the generated properties.

 %Here are more examples to conclude:

 *}

 subsubsection {* Destructor View

   \label{ssec:primrec-destructor-view} *}

 (*<*)

     locale dtr_view

     begin

 (*>*)

 text {*

 The destructor view is in many respects dual to the constructor view. Conditions

 determine which constructor to choose, and these conditions are interpreted

 sequentially or not depending on the @{text "sequential"} option.

 Consider the following examples:

 *}

     primcorec literate :: "('a \<Rightarrow> 'a) \<Rightarrow> 'a \<Rightarrow> 'a llist" where

       "\<not> lnull (literate _ x)" |

       "lhd (literate _ x) = x" |

       "ltl (literate g x) = literate g (g x)"

 text {* \blankline *}

     primcorec siterate :: "('a \<Rightarrow> 'a) \<Rightarrow> 'a \<Rightarrow> 'a stream" where

       "shd (siterate _ x) = x" |

       "stl (siterate g x) = siterate g (g x)"

 text {* \blankline *}

     primcorec every_snd :: "'a stream \<Rightarrow> 'a stream" where

       "shd (every_snd s) = shd s" |

       "stl (every_snd s) = stl (stl s)"

 text {*

 \noindent

 The first formula in the @{const literate} specification indicates which

 constructor to choose. For @{const siterate} and @{const every_snd}, no such

 formula is necessary, since the type has only one constructor. The last two

 formulas are equations specifying the value of the result for the relevant

 selectors. Corecursive calls appear directly to the right of the equal sign.

 Their arguments are unrestricted.

 The next example shows how to specify functions that rely on more than one

 constructor:

 *}

     primcorec lappend :: "'a llist \<Rightarrow> 'a llist \<Rightarrow> 'a llist" where

       "lnull xs \<Longrightarrow> lnull ys \<Longrightarrow> lnull (lappend xs ys)" |

       "lhd (lappend xs ys) = lhd (if lnull xs then ys else xs)" |

       "ltl (lappend xs ys) = (if xs = LNil then ltl ys else lappend (ltl xs) ys)"

 text {*

 \noindent

 For a codatatype with $n$ constructors, it is sufficient to specify $n - 1$

 discriminator formulas. The command will then assume that the remaining

 constructor should be taken otherwise. This can be made explicit by adding

 *}

 (*<*)

     end

     locale dtr_view2

     begin

     primcorec lappend :: "'a llist \<Rightarrow> 'a llist \<Rightarrow> 'a llist" where

       "lnull xs \<Longrightarrow> lnull ys \<Longrightarrow> lnull (lappend xs ys)" |

 (*>*)

       "_ \<Longrightarrow> \<not> lnull (lappend xs ys)"

 (*<*) |

       "lhd (lappend xs ys) = lhd (if lnull xs then ys else xs)" |

       "ltl (lappend xs ys) = (if xs = LNil then ltl ys else lappend (ltl xs) ys)"

 (*>*)

 text {*

 \noindent

 to the specification. The generated selector theorems are conditional.

 The next example illustrates how to cope with selectors defined for several

 constructors:

 *}

     primcorec

       random_process :: "'a stream \<Rightarrow> (int \<Rightarrow> int) \<Rightarrow> int \<Rightarrow> 'a process"

     where

       "n mod 4 = 0 \<Longrightarrow> is_Fail (random_process s f n)" |

       "n mod 4 = 1 \<Longrightarrow> is_Skip (random_process s f n)" |

       "n mod 4 = 2 \<Longrightarrow> is_Action (random_process s f n)" |

       "n mod 4 = 3 \<Longrightarrow> is_Choice (random_process s f n)" |

       "cont (random_process s f n) = random_process s f (f n)" of Skip |

       "prefix (random_process s f n) = shd s" |

       "cont (random_process s f n) = random_process (stl s) f (f n)" of Action |

       "left (random_process s f n) = random_process (every_snd s) f (f n)" |

       "right (random_process s f n) = random_process (every_snd (stl s)) f (f n)"

 text {*

 \noindent

 Using the @{text "of"} keyword, different equations are specified for @{const

 cont} depending on which constructor is selected.

 Here are more examples to conclude:

 *}

     primcorec

       even_infty :: even_enat and

       odd_infty :: odd_enat

     where

       "\<not> is_Even_EZero even_infty" |

       "un_Even_ESuc even_infty = odd_infty" |

       "un_Odd_ESuc odd_infty = even_infty"

 text {* \blankline *}

     primcorec iterate\<^sub>i\<^sub>i :: "('a \<Rightarrow> 'a llist) \<Rightarrow> 'a \<Rightarrow> 'a tree\<^sub>i\<^sub>i" where

       "lbl\<^sub>i\<^sub>i (iterate\<^sub>i\<^sub>i g x) = x" |

       "sub\<^sub>i\<^sub>i (iterate\<^sub>i\<^sub>i g x) = lmap (iterate\<^sub>i\<^sub>i g) (g x)"

 (*<*)

     end

 (*>*)

 subsection {* Command Syntax

   \label{ssec:primcorec-command-syntax} *}

 subsubsection {* \keyw{primcorec} and \keyw{primcorecursive}

   \label{sssec:primcorecursive-and-primcorec} *}

 text {*

 \begin{matharray}{rcl}

   @{command_def "primcorec"} & : & @{text "local_theory \<rightarrow> local_theory"} \\

   @{command_def "primcorecursive"} & : & @{text "local_theory \<rightarrow> proof(prove)"}

 \end{matharray}

 @{rail "

   (@@{command primcorec} | @@{command primcorecursive}) target? \\ @{syntax pcr_option}? fixes @'where'

     (@{syntax pcr_formula} + '|')

   ;

   @{syntax_def pcr_option}: '(' ('sequential' | 'exhaustive') ')'

   ;

   @{syntax_def pcr_formula}: thmdecl? prop (@'of' (term * ))?

 "}

 The optional target is optionally followed by a corecursion-specific option:

 \begin{itemize}

 \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}

 \item

 The @{text "sequential"} option indicates that the conditions in specifications

 expressed using the constructor or destructor view are to be interpreted

 sequentially.

 \item

 The @{text "exhaustive"} option indicates that the conditions in specifications

 expressed using the constructor or destructor view cover all possible cases.

 \end{itemize}

 \noindent

 The @{command primcorec} command is an abbreviation for @{command primcorecursive} with

 @{text "by auto?"} to discharge any emerging proof obligations.

 *}

 (*

 subsection {* Generated Theorems

   \label{ssec:primcorec-generated-theorems} *}

 *)

 (*

 subsection {* Recursive Default Values for Selectors

   \label{ssec:primcorec-recursive-default-values-for-selectors} *}

 text {*

 partial_function to the rescue

 *}

 *)

 section {* Registering Bounded Natural Functors

   \label{sec:registering-bounded-natural-functors} *}

 text {*

 The (co)datatype package can be set up to allow nested recursion through

 arbitrary type constructors, as long as they adhere to the BNF requirements and

 are registered as BNFs.

 *}

 (*

 subsection {* Introductory Example

   \label{ssec:bnf-introductory-example} *}

 text {*

 More examples in \verb|~~/src/HOL/BNF/Basic_BNFs.thy| and

 \verb|~~/src/HOL/BNF/More_BNFs.thy|.

 %Mention distinction between live and dead type arguments;

 %  * and existence of map, set for those

 %mention =>.

 *}

 *)

 subsection {* Command Syntax

   \label{ssec:bnf-command-syntax} *}

 subsubsection {* \keyw{bnf}

   \label{sssec:bnf} *}

 text {*

 \begin{matharray}{rcl}

   @{command_def "bnf"} & : & @{text "local_theory \<rightarrow> proof(prove)"}

 \end{matharray}

 @{rail "

   @@{command bnf} target? (name ':')? typ \\

     'map:' term ('sets:' (term +))? 'bd:' term \\

     ('wits:' (term +))? ('rel:' term)?

 "}

 *}

 subsubsection {* \keyw{bnf\_decl}

   \label{sssec:bnf-decl} *}

 text {*

 %%% TODO: use command_def once the command is available

 \begin{matharray}{rcl}

   @{text "bnf_decl"} & : & @{text "local_theory \<rightarrow> local_theory"}

 \end{matharray}

 @{rail "

   @@{command bnf_decl} target? @{syntax dt_name}

   ;

   @{syntax_def dt_name}: @{syntax tyargs}? name @{syntax map_rel}? mixfix?

   ;

   @{syntax_def tyargs}: typefree | '(' (((name | '-') ':')? typefree + ',') ')'

   ;

   @{syntax_def map_rel}: '(' ((('map' | 'rel') ':' name) +) ')'

 "}

 Declares a fresh type and fresh constants (map, set, relator, cardinal bound)

 and asserts the bnf properties for these constants as axioms. Additionally,

 type arguments may be marked as dead (by using @{syntax "-"} instead of a name for the

 set function)---this is the only difference of @{syntax dt_name} compared to

 the syntax used by the @{command datatype_new}/@{command codatatype} commands.

 The axioms are sound, since one there exists a bnf of any given arity.

 *}

 subsubsection {* \keyw{print\_bnfs}

   \label{sssec:print-bnfs} *}

 text {*

 \begin{matharray}{rcl}

   @{command_def "print_bnfs"} & : & @{text "local_theory \<rightarrow>"}

 \end{matharray}

 @{rail "

   @@{command print_bnfs}

 "}

 *}

 section {* Deriving Destructors and Theorems for Free Constructors

   \label{sec:deriving-destructors-and-theorems-for-free-constructors} *}

 text {*

 The derivation of convenience theorems for types equipped with free constructors,

 as performed internally by @{command datatype_new} and @{command codatatype},

 is available as a stand-alone command called @{command wrap_free_constructors}.

 %  * need for this is rare but may arise if you want e.g. to add destructors to

 %    a type not introduced by ...

 %

 %  * also useful for compatibility with old package, e.g. add destructors to

 %    old \keyw{datatype}

 %

 %  * @{command wrap_free_constructors}

 %    * @{text "no_discs_sels"}, @{text "no_code"}, @{text "rep_compat"}

 %    * hack to have both co and nonco view via locale (cf. ext nats)

 %  * code generator

 %     * eq, refl, simps

 *}

 (*

 subsection {* Introductory Example

   \label{ssec:ctors-introductory-example} *}

 *)

 subsection {* Command Syntax

   \label{ssec:ctors-command-syntax} *}

 subsubsection {* \keyw{wrap\_free\_constructors}

   \label{sssec:wrap-free-constructors} *}

 text {*

 \begin{matharray}{rcl}

   @{command_def "wrap_free_constructors"} & : & @{text "local_theory \<rightarrow> proof(prove)"}

 \end{matharray}

 @{rail "

   @@{command wrap_free_constructors} target? @{syntax dt_options} \\

     term_list name @{syntax wfc_discs_sels}?

   ;

   @{syntax_def wfc_discs_sels}: name_list (name_list_list name_term_list_list? )?

   ;

   @{syntax_def name_term}: (name ':' term)

   ;

   X_list: '[' (X + ',') ']'

 "}

 % options: no_discs_sels no_code rep_compat

 \noindent

 Section~\ref{ssec:datatype-generated-theorems} lists the generated theorems.

 *}

 (*

 section {* Standard ML Interface

   \label{sec:standard-ml-interface} *}

 text {*

 The package's programmatic interface.

 *}

 *)

 (*

 section {* Interoperability

   \label{sec:interoperability} *}

 text {*

 The package's interaction with other Isabelle packages and tools, such as the

 code generator and the counterexample generators.

 *}

 subsection {* Transfer and Lifting

   \label{ssec:transfer-and-lifting} *}

 subsection {* Code Generator

   \label{ssec:code-generator} *}

 subsection {* Quickcheck

   \label{ssec:quickcheck} *}

 subsection {* Nitpick

   \label{ssec:nitpick} *}

 subsection {* Nominal Isabelle

   \label{ssec:nominal-isabelle} *}

 *)

 (*

 section {* Known Bugs and Limitations

   \label{sec:known-bugs-and-limitations} *}

 text {*

 Known open issues of the package.

 *}

 text {*

 %* primcorecursive and primcorec is unfinished

 %

 %* slow n-ary mutual (co)datatype, avoid as much as possible (e.g. using nesting)

 %

 %* issues with HOL-Proofs?

 %

 %* partial documentation

 %

 %* no way to register "sum" and "prod" as (co)datatypes to enable N2M reduction for them

 %  (for @{command datatype_new_compat} and prim(co)rec)

 %

 %    * a fortiori, no way to register same type as both data- and codatatype

 %

 %* no recursion through unused arguments (unlike with the old package)

 %

 %* in a locale, cannot use locally fixed types (because of limitation in typedef)?

 %

 % *names of variables suboptimal

 *}

 *)

 text {*

 \section*{Acknowledgment}

 Tobias Nipkow and Makarius Wenzel encouraged us to implement the new

 (co)datatype package. Andreas Lochbihler provided lots of comments on earlier

 versions of the package, especially for the coinductive part. Brian Huffman

 suggested major simplifications to the internal constructions, much of which has

 yet to be implemented. Florian Haftmann and Christian Urban provided general

 advice on Isabelle and package writing. Stefan Milius and Lutz Schr\"oder

 found an elegant proof to eliminate one of the BNF assumptions. Andreas

 Lochbihler and Christian Sternagel suggested many textual improvements to this

 tutorial.

 *}

 end