theory Program

 imports Introduction

 begin

 section {* Turning Theories into Programs \label{sec:program} *}

 subsection {* The @{text "Isabelle/HOL"} default setup *}

 text {*

   We have already seen how by default equations stemming from

   @{command definition}/@{command primrec}/@{command fun}

   statements are used for code generation.  This default behaviour

   can be changed, e.g. by providing different code equations.

   All kinds of customisation shown in this section is \emph{safe}

   in the sense that the user does not have to worry about

   correctness -- all programs generatable that way are partially

   correct.

 *}

 subsection {* Selecting code equations *}

 text {*

   Coming back to our introductory example, we

   could provide an alternative code equations for @{const dequeue}

   explicitly:

 *}

 lemma %quote [code]:

   "dequeue (AQueue xs []) =

      (if xs = [] then (None, AQueue [] [])

        else dequeue (AQueue [] (rev xs)))"

   "dequeue (AQueue xs (y # ys)) =

      (Some y, AQueue xs ys)"

   by (cases xs, simp_all) (cases "rev xs", simp_all)

 text {*

   \noindent The annotation @{text "[code]"} is an @{text Isar}

   @{text attribute} which states that the given theorems should be

   considered as code equations for a @{text fun} statement --

   the corresponding constant is determined syntactically.  The resulting code:

 *}

 text %quote {*@{code_stmts dequeue (consts) dequeue (Haskell)}*}

 text {*

   \noindent You may note that the equality test @{term "xs = []"} has been

   replaced by the predicate @{term "null xs"}.  This is due to the default

   setup in the \qn{preprocessor} to be discussed further below (\secref{sec:preproc}).

   Changing the default constructor set of datatypes is also

   possible.  See \secref{sec:datatypes} for an example.

   As told in \secref{sec:concept}, code generation is based

   on a structured collection of code theorems.

   For explorative purpose, this collection

   may be inspected using the @{command code_thms} command:

 *}

 code_thms %quote dequeue

 text {*

   \noindent prints a table with \emph{all} code equations

   for @{const dequeue}, including

   \emph{all} code equations those equations depend

   on recursively.

   Similarly, the @{command code_deps} command shows a graph

   visualising dependencies between code equations.

 *}

 subsection {* @{text class} and @{text instantiation} *}

 text {*

   Concerning type classes and code generation, let us examine an example

   from abstract algebra:

 *}

 class %quote semigroup =

   fixes mult :: "'a \<Rightarrow> 'a \<Rightarrow> 'a" (infixl "\<otimes>" 70)

   assumes assoc: "(x \<otimes> y) \<otimes> z = x \<otimes> (y \<otimes> z)"

 class %quote monoid = semigroup +

   fixes neutral :: 'a ("\<one>")

   assumes neutl: "\<one> \<otimes> x = x"

     and neutr: "x \<otimes> \<one> = x"

 instantiation %quote nat :: monoid

 begin

 primrec %quote mult_nat where

     "0 \<otimes> n = (0\<Colon>nat)"

   | "Suc m \<otimes> n = n + m \<otimes> n"

 definition %quote neutral_nat where

   "\<one> = Suc 0"

 lemma %quote add_mult_distrib:

   fixes n m q :: nat

   shows "(n + m) \<otimes> q = n \<otimes> q + m \<otimes> q"

   by (induct n) simp_all

 instance %quote proof

   fix m n q :: nat

   show "m \<otimes> n \<otimes> q = m \<otimes> (n \<otimes> q)"

     by (induct m) (simp_all add: add_mult_distrib)

   show "\<one> \<otimes> n = n"

     by (simp add: neutral_nat_def)

   show "m \<otimes> \<one> = m"

     by (induct m) (simp_all add: neutral_nat_def)

 qed

 end %quote

 text {*

   \noindent We define the natural operation of the natural numbers

   on monoids:

 *}

 primrec %quote (in monoid) pow :: "nat \<Rightarrow> 'a \<Rightarrow> 'a" where

     "pow 0 a = \<one>"

   | "pow (Suc n) a = a \<otimes> pow n a"

 text {*

   \noindent This we use to define the discrete exponentiation function:

 *}

 definition %quote bexp :: "nat \<Rightarrow> nat" where

   "bexp n = pow n (Suc (Suc 0))"

 text {*

   \noindent The corresponding code:

 *}

 text %quote {*@{code_stmts bexp (Haskell)}*}

 text {*

   \noindent This is a convenient place to show how explicit dictionary construction

   manifests in generated code (here, the same example in @{text SML}):

 *}

 text %quote {*@{code_stmts bexp (SML)}*}

 text {*

   \noindent Note the parameters with trailing underscore (@{verbatim "A_"})

     which are the dictionary parameters.

 *}

 subsection {* The preprocessor \label{sec:preproc} *}

 text {*

   Before selected function theorems are turned into abstract

   code, a chain of definitional transformation steps is carried

   out: \emph{preprocessing}.  In essence, the preprocessor

   consists of two components: a \emph{simpset} and \emph{function transformers}.

   The \emph{simpset} allows to employ the full generality of the Isabelle

   simplifier.  Due to the interpretation of theorems

   as code equations, rewrites are applied to the right

   hand side and the arguments of the left hand side of an

   equation, but never to the constant heading the left hand side.

   An important special case are \emph{inline theorems} which may be

   declared and undeclared using the

   \emph{code inline} or \emph{code inline del} attribute respectively.

   Some common applications:

 *}

 text_raw {*

   \begin{itemize}

 *}

 text {*

      \item replacing non-executable constructs by executable ones:

 *}     

 lemma %quote [code inline]:

   "x \<in> set xs \<longleftrightarrow> x mem xs" by (induct xs) simp_all

 text {*

      \item eliminating superfluous constants:

 *}

 lemma %quote [code inline]:

   "1 = Suc 0" by simp

 text {*

      \item replacing executable but inconvenient constructs:

 *}

 lemma %quote [code inline]:

   "xs = [] \<longleftrightarrow> List.null xs" by (induct xs) simp_all

 text_raw {*

   \end{itemize}

 *}

 text {*

   \noindent \emph{Function transformers} provide a very general interface,

   transforming a list of function theorems to another

   list of function theorems, provided that neither the heading

   constant nor its type change.  The @{term "0\<Colon>nat"} / @{const Suc}

   pattern elimination implemented in

   theory @{text Efficient_Nat} (see \secref{eff_nat}) uses this

   interface.

   \noindent The current setup of the preprocessor may be inspected using

   the @{command print_codesetup} command.

   @{command code_thms} provides a convenient

   mechanism to inspect the impact of a preprocessor setup

   on code equations.

   \begin{warn}

     The attribute \emph{code unfold}

     associated with the @{text "SML code generator"} also applies to

     the @{text "generic code generator"}:

     \emph{code unfold} implies \emph{code inline}.

   \end{warn}

 *}

 subsection {* Datatypes \label{sec:datatypes} *}

 text {*

   Conceptually, any datatype is spanned by a set of

   \emph{constructors} of type @{text "\<tau> = \<dots> \<Rightarrow> \<kappa> \<alpha>\<^isub>1 \<dots> \<alpha>\<^isub>n"} where @{text

   "{\<alpha>\<^isub>1, \<dots>, \<alpha>\<^isub>n}"} is exactly the set of \emph{all} type variables in

   @{text "\<tau>"}.  The HOL datatype package by default registers any new

   datatype in the table of datatypes, which may be inspected using the

   @{command print_codesetup} command.

   In some cases, it is appropriate to alter or extend this table.  As

   an example, we will develop an alternative representation of the

   queue example given in \secref{sec:intro}.  The amortised

   representation is convenient for generating code but exposes its

   \qt{implementation} details, which may be cumbersome when proving

   theorems about it.  Therefore, here a simple, straightforward

   representation of queues:

 *}

 datatype %quote 'a queue = Queue "'a list"

 definition %quote empty :: "'a queue" where

   "empty = Queue []"

 primrec %quote enqueue :: "'a \<Rightarrow> 'a queue \<Rightarrow> 'a queue" where

   "enqueue x (Queue xs) = Queue (xs @ [x])"

 fun %quote dequeue :: "'a queue \<Rightarrow> 'a option \<times> 'a queue" where

     "dequeue (Queue []) = (None, Queue [])"

   | "dequeue (Queue (x # xs)) = (Some x, Queue xs)"

 text {*

   \noindent This we can use directly for proving;  for executing,

   we provide an alternative characterisation:

 *}

 definition %quote AQueue :: "'a list \<Rightarrow> 'a list \<Rightarrow> 'a queue" where

   "AQueue xs ys = Queue (ys @ rev xs)"

 code_datatype %quote AQueue

 text {*

   \noindent Here we define a \qt{constructor} @{const "AQueue"} which

   is defined in terms of @{text "Queue"} and interprets its arguments

   according to what the \emph{content} of an amortised queue is supposed

   to be.  Equipped with this, we are able to prove the following equations

   for our primitive queue operations which \qt{implement} the simple

   queues in an amortised fashion:

 *}

 lemma %quote empty_AQueue [code]:

   "empty = AQueue [] []"

   unfolding AQueue_def empty_def by simp

 lemma %quote enqueue_AQueue [code]:

   "enqueue x (AQueue xs ys) = AQueue (x # xs) ys"

   unfolding AQueue_def by simp

 lemma %quote dequeue_AQueue [code]:

   "dequeue (AQueue xs []) =

     (if xs = [] then (None, AQueue [] [])

     else dequeue (AQueue [] (rev xs)))"

   "dequeue (AQueue xs (y # ys)) = (Some y, AQueue xs ys)"

   unfolding AQueue_def by simp_all

 text {*

   \noindent For completeness, we provide a substitute for the

   @{text case} combinator on queues:

 *}

 lemma %quote queue_case_AQueue [code]:

   "queue_case f (AQueue xs ys) = f (ys @ rev xs)"

   unfolding AQueue_def by simp

 text {*

   \noindent The resulting code looks as expected:

 *}

 text %quote {*@{code_stmts empty enqueue dequeue (SML)}*}

 text {*

   \noindent From this example, it can be glimpsed that using own

   constructor sets is a little delicate since it changes the set of

   valid patterns for values of that type.  Without going into much

   detail, here some practical hints:

   \begin{itemize}

     \item When changing the constructor set for datatypes, take care

       to provide alternative equations for the @{text case} combinator.

     \item Values in the target language need not to be normalised --

       different values in the target language may represent the same

       value in the logic.

     \item Usually, a good methodology to deal with the subtleties of

       pattern matching is to see the type as an abstract type: provide

       a set of operations which operate on the concrete representation

       of the type, and derive further operations by combinations of

       these primitive ones, without relying on a particular

       representation.

   \end{itemize}

 *}

 subsection {* Equality and wellsortedness *}

 text {*

   Surely you have already noticed how equality is treated

   by the code generator:

 *}

 primrec %quote collect_duplicates :: "'a list \<Rightarrow> 'a list \<Rightarrow> 'a list \<Rightarrow> 'a list" where

   "collect_duplicates xs ys [] = xs"

   | "collect_duplicates xs ys (z#zs) = (if z \<in> set xs

       then if z \<in> set ys

         then collect_duplicates xs ys zs

         else collect_duplicates xs (z#ys) zs

       else collect_duplicates (z#xs) (z#ys) zs)"

 text {*

   \noindent The membership test during preprocessing is rewritten,

   resulting in @{const List.member}, which itself

   performs an explicit equality check.

 *}

 text %quote {*@{code_stmts collect_duplicates (SML)}*}

 text {*

   \noindent Obviously, polymorphic equality is implemented the Haskell

   way using a type class.  How is this achieved?  HOL introduces

   an explicit class @{class eq} with a corresponding operation

   @{const eq_class.eq} such that @{thm eq [no_vars]}.

   The preprocessing framework does the rest by propagating the

   @{class eq} constraints through all dependent code equations.

   For datatypes, instances of @{class eq} are implicitly derived

   when possible.  For other types, you may instantiate @{text eq}

   manually like any other type class.

   Though this @{text eq} class is designed to get rarely in

   the way, a subtlety

   enters the stage when definitions of overloaded constants

   are dependent on operational equality.  For example, let

   us define a lexicographic ordering on tuples

   (also see theory @{theory Product_ord}):

 *}

 instantiation %quote "*" :: (order, order) order

 begin

 definition %quote [code del]:

   "x \<le> y \<longleftrightarrow> fst x < fst y \<or> fst x = fst y \<and> snd x \<le> snd y"

 definition %quote [code del]:

   "x < y \<longleftrightarrow> fst x < fst y \<or> fst x = fst y \<and> snd x < snd y"

 instance %quote proof

 qed (auto simp: less_eq_prod_def less_prod_def intro: order_less_trans)

 end %quote

 lemma %quote order_prod [code]:

   "(x1 \<Colon> 'a\<Colon>order, y1 \<Colon> 'b\<Colon>order) < (x2, y2) \<longleftrightarrow>

      x1 < x2 \<or> x1 = x2 \<and> y1 < y2"

   "(x1 \<Colon> 'a\<Colon>order, y1 \<Colon> 'b\<Colon>order) \<le> (x2, y2) \<longleftrightarrow>

      x1 < x2 \<or> x1 = x2 \<and> y1 \<le> y2"

   by (simp_all add: less_prod_def less_eq_prod_def)

 text {*

   \noindent Then code generation will fail.  Why?  The definition

   of @{term "op \<le>"} depends on equality on both arguments,

   which are polymorphic and impose an additional @{class eq}

   class constraint, which the preprocessor does not propagate

   (for technical reasons).

   The solution is to add @{class eq} explicitly to the first sort arguments in the

   code theorems:

 *}

 lemma %quote order_prod_code [code]:

   "(x1 \<Colon> 'a\<Colon>{order, eq}, y1 \<Colon> 'b\<Colon>order) < (x2, y2) \<longleftrightarrow>

      x1 < x2 \<or> x1 = x2 \<and> y1 < y2"

   "(x1 \<Colon> 'a\<Colon>{order, eq}, y1 \<Colon> 'b\<Colon>order) \<le> (x2, y2) \<longleftrightarrow>

      x1 < x2 \<or> x1 = x2 \<and> y1 \<le> y2"

   by (simp_all add: less_prod_def less_eq_prod_def)

 text {*

   \noindent Then code generation succeeds:

 *}

 text %quote {*@{code_stmts "op \<le> \<Colon> _ \<times> _ \<Rightarrow> _ \<times> _ \<Rightarrow> bool" (SML)}*}

 text {*

   In some cases, the automatically derived code equations

   for equality on a particular type may not be appropriate.

   As example, watch the following datatype representing

   monomorphic parametric types (where type constructors

   are referred to by natural numbers):

 *}

 datatype %quote monotype = Mono nat "monotype list"

 (*<*)

 lemma monotype_eq:

   "eq_class.eq (Mono tyco1 typargs1) (Mono tyco2 typargs2) \<equiv> 

      eq_class.eq tyco1 tyco2 \<and> eq_class.eq typargs1 typargs2" by (simp add: eq)

 (*>*)

 text {*

   \noindent Then code generation for SML would fail with a message

   that the generated code contains illegal mutual dependencies:

   the theorem @{thm monotype_eq [no_vars]} already requires the

   instance @{text "monotype \<Colon> eq"}, which itself requires

   @{thm monotype_eq [no_vars]};  Haskell has no problem with mutually

   recursive @{text instance} and @{text function} definitions,

   but the SML serialiser does not support this.

   In such cases, you have to provide your own equality equations

   involving auxiliary constants.  In our case,

   @{const [show_types] list_all2} can do the job:

 *}

 lemma %quote monotype_eq_list_all2 [code]:

   "eq_class.eq (Mono tyco1 typargs1) (Mono tyco2 typargs2) \<longleftrightarrow>

      eq_class.eq tyco1 tyco2 \<and> list_all2 eq_class.eq typargs1 typargs2"

   by (simp add: eq list_all2_eq [symmetric])

 text {*

   \noindent does not depend on instance @{text "monotype \<Colon> eq"}:

 *}

 text %quote {*@{code_stmts "eq_class.eq :: monotype \<Rightarrow> monotype \<Rightarrow> bool" (SML)}*}

 subsection {* Explicit partiality *}

 text {*

   Partiality usually enters the game by partial patterns, as

   in the following example, again for amortised queues:

 *}

 definition %quote strict_dequeue :: "'a queue \<Rightarrow> 'a \<times> 'a queue" where

   "strict_dequeue q = (case dequeue q

     of (Some x, q') \<Rightarrow> (x, q'))"

 lemma %quote strict_dequeue_AQueue [code]:

   "strict_dequeue (AQueue xs (y # ys)) = (y, AQueue xs ys)"

   "strict_dequeue (AQueue xs []) =

     (case rev xs of y # ys \<Rightarrow> (y, AQueue [] ys))"

   by (simp_all add: strict_dequeue_def dequeue_AQueue split: list.splits)

 text {*

   \noindent In the corresponding code, there is no equation

   for the pattern @{term "AQueue [] []"}:

 *}

 text %quote {*@{code_stmts strict_dequeue (consts) strict_dequeue (Haskell)}*}

 text {*

   \noindent In some cases it is desirable to have this

   pseudo-\qt{partiality} more explicitly, e.g.~as follows:

 *}

 axiomatization %quote empty_queue :: 'a

 definition %quote strict_dequeue' :: "'a queue \<Rightarrow> 'a \<times> 'a queue" where

   "strict_dequeue' q = (case dequeue q of (Some x, q') \<Rightarrow> (x, q') | _ \<Rightarrow> empty_queue)"

 lemma %quote strict_dequeue'_AQueue [code]:

   "strict_dequeue' (AQueue xs []) = (if xs = [] then empty_queue

      else strict_dequeue' (AQueue [] (rev xs)))"

   "strict_dequeue' (AQueue xs (y # ys)) =

      (y, AQueue xs ys)"

   by (simp_all add: strict_dequeue'_def dequeue_AQueue split: list.splits)

 text {*

   Observe that on the right hand side of the definition of @{const

   "strict_dequeue'"} the constant @{const empty_queue} occurs

   which is unspecified.

   Normally, if constants without any code equations occur in a

   program, the code generator complains (since in most cases this is

   not what the user expects).  But such constants can also be thought

   of as function definitions with no equations which always fail,

   since there is never a successful pattern match on the left hand

   side.  In order to categorise a constant into that category

   explicitly, use @{command "code_abort"}:

 *}

 code_abort %quote empty_queue

 text {*

   \noindent Then the code generator will just insert an error or

   exception at the appropriate position:

 *}

 text %quote {*@{code_stmts strict_dequeue' (consts) empty_queue strict_dequeue' (Haskell)}*}

 text {*

   \noindent This feature however is rarely needed in practice.

   Note also that the @{text HOL} default setup already declares

   @{const undefined} as @{command "code_abort"}, which is most

   likely to be used in such situations.

 *}

 end