% $Id$

 \section{Numbers}

 \label{sec:numbers}

 \index{numbers|(}%

 Until now, our numerical examples have used the type of \textbf{natural

 numbers},

 \isa{nat}.  This is a recursive datatype generated by the constructors

 zero  and successor, so it works well with inductive proofs and primitive

 recursive function definitions.  HOL also provides the type

 \isa{int} of \textbf{integers}, which lack induction but support true

 subtraction.  The integers are preferable to the natural numbers for reasoning about

 complicated arithmetic expressions, even for some expressions whose

 value is non-negative.  The logic HOL-Complex also has the types

 \isa{real} and \isa{complex}: the real and complex numbers.  Isabelle has no 

 subtyping,  so the numeric

 types are distinct and there are functions to convert between them.

 Fortunately most numeric operations are overloaded: the same symbol can be

 used at all numeric types. Table~\ref{tab:overloading} in the appendix

 shows the most important operations, together with the priorities of the

 infix symbols.

 \index{linear arithmetic}%

 Many theorems involving numeric types can be proved automatically by

 Isabelle's arithmetic decision procedure, the method

 \methdx{arith}.  Linear arithmetic comprises addition, subtraction

 and multiplication by constant factors; subterms involving other operators

 are regarded as variables.  The procedure can be slow, especially if the

 subgoal to be proved involves subtraction over type \isa{nat}, which 

 causes case splits.  On types \isa{nat} and \isa{int}, \methdx{arith}

 can deal with quantifiers (this is known as ``Presburger Arithmetic''),

 whereas on type \isa{real} it cannot.

 The simplifier reduces arithmetic expressions in other

 ways, such as dividing through by common factors.  For problems that lie

 outside the scope of automation, HOL provides hundreds of

 theorems about multiplication, division, etc., that can be brought to

 bear.  You can locate them using Proof General's Find

 button.  A few lemmas are given below to show what

 is available.

 \subsection{Numeric Literals}

 \label{sec:numerals}

 \index{numeric literals|(}%

 The constants \cdx{0} and \cdx{1} are overloaded.  They denote zero and one,

 respectively, for all numeric types.  Other values are expressed by numeric

 literals, which consist of one or more decimal digits optionally preceeded by

 a minus sign (\isa{-}).  Examples are \isa{2}, \isa{-3} and

 \isa{441223334678}.  Literals are available for the types of natural numbers,

 integers and reals; they denote integer values of arbitrary size.

 Literals look like constants, but they abbreviate 

 terms representing the number in a two's complement binary notation. 

 Isabelle performs arithmetic on literals by rewriting rather 

 than using the hardware arithmetic. In most cases arithmetic 

 is fast enough, even for large numbers. The arithmetic operations 

 provided for literals include addition, subtraction, multiplication, 

 integer division and remainder.  Fractions of literals (expressed using

 division) are reduced to lowest terms.

 \begin{warn}\index{overloading!and arithmetic}

 The arithmetic operators are 

 overloaded, so you must be careful to ensure that each numeric 

 expression refers to a specific type, if necessary by inserting 

 type constraints.  Here is an example of what can go wrong:

 \par

 \begin{isabelle}

 \isacommand{lemma}\ "2\ *\ m\ =\ m\ +\ m"

 \end{isabelle}

 %

 Carefully observe how Isabelle displays the subgoal:

 \begin{isabelle}

 \ 1.\ (2::'a)\ *\ m\ =\ m\ +\ m

 \end{isabelle}

 The type \isa{'a} given for the literal \isa{2} warns us that no numeric

 type has been specified.  The problem is underspecified.  Given a type

 constraint such as \isa{nat}, \isa{int} or \isa{real}, it becomes trivial.

 \end{warn}

 \begin{warn}

 \index{recdef@\isacommand {recdef} (command)!and numeric literals}  

 Numeric literals are not constructors and therefore

 must not be used in patterns.  For example, this declaration is

 rejected:

 \begin{isabelle}

 \isacommand{recdef}\ h\ "\isacharbraceleft \isacharbraceright "\isanewline

 "h\ 3\ =\ 2"\isanewline

 "h\ i\ \ =\ i"

 \end{isabelle}

 You should use a conditional expression instead:

 \begin{isabelle}

 "h\ i\ =\ (if\ i\ =\ 3\ then\ 2\ else\ i)"

 \end{isabelle}

 \index{numeric literals|)}

 \end{warn}

 \subsection{The Type of Natural Numbers, {\tt\slshape nat}}

 \index{natural numbers|(}\index{*nat (type)|(}%

 This type requires no introduction: we have been using it from the

 beginning.  Hundreds of theorems about the natural numbers are

 proved in the theories \isa{Nat}, \isa{NatArith} and \isa{Divides}.  Only

 in exceptional circumstances should you resort to induction.

 \subsubsection{Literals}

 \index{numeric literals!for type \protect\isa{nat}}%

 The notational options for the natural  numbers are confusing.  Recall that an

 overloaded constant can be defined independently for each type; the definition

 of \cdx{1} for type \isa{nat} is

 \begin{isabelle}

 1\ \isasymequiv\ Suc\ 0

 \rulename{One_nat_def}

 \end{isabelle}

 This is installed as a simplification rule, so the simplifier will replace

 every occurrence of \isa{1::nat} by \isa{Suc\ 0}.  Literals are obviously

 better than nested \isa{Suc}s at expressing large values.  But many theorems,

 including the rewrite rules for primitive recursive functions, can only be

 applied to terms of the form \isa{Suc\ $n$}.

 The following default  simplification rules replace

 small literals by zero and successor: 

 \begin{isabelle}

 2\ +\ n\ =\ Suc\ (Suc\ n)

 \rulename{add_2_eq_Suc}\isanewline

 n\ +\ 2\ =\ Suc\ (Suc\ n)

 \rulename{add_2_eq_Suc'}

 \end{isabelle}

 It is less easy to transform \isa{100} into \isa{Suc\ 99} (for example), and

 the simplifier will normally reverse this transformation.  Novices should

 express natural numbers using \isa{0} and \isa{Suc} only.

 \subsubsection{Typical lemmas}

 Inequalities involving addition and subtraction alone can be proved

 automatically.  Lemmas such as these can be used to prove inequalities

 involving multiplication and division:

 \begin{isabelle}

 \isasymlbrakk i\ \isasymle \ j;\ k\ \isasymle \ l\isasymrbrakk \ \isasymLongrightarrow \ i\ *\ k\ \isasymle \ j\ *\ l%

 \rulename{mult_le_mono}\isanewline

 \isasymlbrakk i\ <\ j;\ 0\ <\ k\isasymrbrakk \ \isasymLongrightarrow \ i\

 *\ k\ <\ j\ *\ k%

 \rulename{mult_less_mono1}\isanewline

 m\ \isasymle \ n\ \isasymLongrightarrow \ m\ div\ k\ \isasymle \ n\ div\ k%

 \rulename{div_le_mono}

 \end{isabelle}

 %

 Various distributive laws concerning multiplication are available:

 \begin{isabelle}

 (m\ +\ n)\ *\ k\ =\ m\ *\ k\ +\ n\ *\ k%

 \rulenamedx{add_mult_distrib}\isanewline

 (m\ -\ n)\ *\ k\ =\ m\ *\ k\ -\ n\ *\ k%

 \rulenamedx{diff_mult_distrib}\isanewline

 (m\ mod\ n)\ *\ k\ =\ (m\ *\ k)\ mod\ (n\ *\ k)

 \rulenamedx{mod_mult_distrib}

 \end{isabelle}

 \subsubsection{Division}

 \index{division!for type \protect\isa{nat}}%

 The infix operators \isa{div} and \isa{mod} are overloaded.

 Isabelle/HOL provides the basic facts about quotient and remainder

 on the natural numbers:

 \begin{isabelle}

 m\ mod\ n\ =\ (if\ m\ <\ n\ then\ m\ else\ (m\ -\ n)\ mod\ n)

 \rulename{mod_if}\isanewline

 m\ div\ n\ *\ n\ +\ m\ mod\ n\ =\ m%

 \rulenamedx{mod_div_equality}

 \end{isabelle}

 Many less obvious facts about quotient and remainder are also provided. 

 Here is a selection:

 \begin{isabelle}

 a\ *\ b\ div\ c\ =\ a\ *\ (b\ div\ c)\ +\ a\ *\ (b\ mod\ c)\ div\ c%

 \rulename{div_mult1_eq}\isanewline

 a\ *\ b\ mod\ c\ =\ a\ *\ (b\ mod\ c)\ mod\ c%

 \rulename{mod_mult1_eq}\isanewline

 a\ div\ (b*c)\ =\ a\ div\ b\ div\ c%

 \rulename{div_mult2_eq}\isanewline

 a\ mod\ (b*c)\ =\ b * (a\ div\ b\ mod\ c)\ +\ a\ mod\ b%

 \rulename{mod_mult2_eq}\isanewline

 0\ <\ c\ \isasymLongrightarrow \ (c\ *\ a)\ div\ (c\ *\ b)\ =\ a\ div\ b%

 \rulename{div_mult_mult1}

 \end{isabelle}

 Surprisingly few of these results depend upon the

 divisors' being nonzero.

 \index{division!by zero}%

 That is because division by

 zero yields zero:

 \begin{isabelle}

 a\ div\ 0\ =\ 0

 \rulename{DIVISION_BY_ZERO_DIV}\isanewline

 a\ mod\ 0\ =\ a%

 \rulename{DIVISION_BY_ZERO_MOD}

 \end{isabelle}

 As a concession to convention, these equations are not installed as default

 simplification rules.  In \isa{div_mult_mult1} above, one of

 the two divisors (namely~\isa{c}) must still be nonzero.

 The \textbf{divides} relation\index{divides relation}

 has the standard definition, which

 is overloaded over all numeric types: 

 \begin{isabelle}

 m\ dvd\ n\ \isasymequiv\ {\isasymexists}k.\ n\ =\ m\ *\ k

 \rulenamedx{dvd_def}

 \end{isabelle}

 %

 Section~\ref{sec:proving-euclid} discusses proofs involving this

 relation.  Here are some of the facts proved about it:

 \begin{isabelle}

 \isasymlbrakk m\ dvd\ n;\ n\ dvd\ m\isasymrbrakk \ \isasymLongrightarrow \ m\ =\ n%

 \rulenamedx{dvd_anti_sym}\isanewline

 \isasymlbrakk k\ dvd\ m;\ k\ dvd\ n\isasymrbrakk \ \isasymLongrightarrow \ k\ dvd\ (m\ +\ n)

 \rulenamedx{dvd_add}

 \end{isabelle}

 \subsubsection{Simplifier Tricks}

 The rule \isa{diff_mult_distrib} shown above is one of the few facts

 about \isa{m\ -\ n} that is not subject to

 the condition \isa{n\ \isasymle \  m}.  Natural number subtraction has few

 nice properties; often you should remove it by simplifying with this split

 rule:

 \begin{isabelle}

 P(a-b)\ =\ ((a<b\ \isasymlongrightarrow \ P\

 0)\ \isasymand \ (\isasymforall d.\ a\ =\ b+d\ \isasymlongrightarrow \ P\

 d))

 \rulename{nat_diff_split}

 \end{isabelle}

 For example, splitting helps to prove the following fact:

 \begin{isabelle}

 \isacommand{lemma}\ "(n\ -\ 2)\ *\ (n\ +\ 2)\ =\ n\ *\ n\ -\ (4::nat)"\isanewline

 \isacommand{apply}\ (simp\ split:\ nat_diff_split,\ clarify)\isanewline

 \ 1.\ \isasymAnd d.\ \isasymlbrakk n\ <\ 2;\ n\ *\ n\ =\ 4\ +\ d\isasymrbrakk \ \isasymLongrightarrow \ d\ =\ 0

 \end{isabelle}

 The result lies outside the scope of linear arithmetic, but

  it is easily found

 if we explicitly split \isa{n<2} as \isa{n=0} or \isa{n=1}:

 \begin{isabelle}

 \isacommand{apply}\ (subgoal_tac\ "n=0\ |\ n=1",\ force,\ arith)\isanewline

 \isacommand{done}

 \end{isabelle}

 Suppose that two expressions are equal, differing only in 

 associativity and commutativity of addition.  Simplifying with the

 following equations sorts the terms and groups them to the right, making

 the two expressions identical:

 \begin{isabelle}

 m\ +\ n\ +\ k\ =\ m\ +\ (n\ +\ k)

 \rulenamedx{add_assoc}\isanewline

 m\ +\ n\ =\ n\ +\ m%

 \rulenamedx{add_commute}\isanewline

 x\ +\ (y\ +\ z)\ =\ y\ +\ (x\

 +\ z)

 \rulename{add_left_commute}

 \end{isabelle}

 The name \isa{add_ac}\index{*add_ac (theorems)} 

 refers to the list of all three theorems; similarly

 there is \isa{mult_ac}.\index{*mult_ac (theorems)} 

 Here is an example of the sorting effect.  Start

 with this goal:

 \begin{isabelle}

 \ 1.\ Suc\ (i\ +\ j\ *\ l\ *\ k\ +\ m\ *\ n)\ =\

 f\ (n\ *\ m\ +\ i\ +\ k\ *\ j\ *\ l)

 \end{isabelle}

 %

 Simplify using  \isa{add_ac} and \isa{mult_ac}:

 \begin{isabelle}

 \isacommand{apply}\ (simp\ add:\ add_ac\ mult_ac)

 \end{isabelle}

 %

 Here is the resulting subgoal:

 \begin{isabelle}

 \ 1.\ Suc\ (i\ +\ (m\ *\ n\ +\ j\ *\ (k\ *\ l)))\

 =\ f\ (i\ +\ (m\ *\ n\ +\ j\ *\ (k\ *\ l)))%

 \end{isabelle}%

 \index{natural numbers|)}\index{*nat (type)|)}

 \subsection{The Type of Integers, {\tt\slshape int}}

 \index{integers|(}\index{*int (type)|(}%

 Reasoning methods resemble those for the natural numbers, but induction and

 the constant \isa{Suc} are not available.  HOL provides many lemmas

 for proving inequalities involving integer multiplication and division,

 similar to those shown above for type~\isa{nat}.  

 The \rmindex{absolute value} function \cdx{abs} is overloaded for the numeric types.

 It is defined for the integers; we have for example the obvious law

 \begin{isabelle}

 \isasymbar x\ *\ y\isasymbar \ =\ \isasymbar x\isasymbar \ *\ \isasymbar y\isasymbar 

 \rulename{abs_mult}

 \end{isabelle}

 \begin{warn}

 The absolute value bars shown above cannot be typed on a keyboard.  They

 can be entered using the X-symbol package.  In \textsc{ascii}, type \isa{abs x} to

 get \isa{\isasymbar x\isasymbar}.

 \end{warn}

 The \isa{arith} method can prove facts about \isa{abs} automatically, 

 though as it does so by case analysis, the cost can be exponential.

 \begin{isabelle}

 \isacommand{lemma}\ "abs\ (x+y)\ \isasymle \ abs\ x\ +\ abs\ (y\ ::\ int)"\isanewline

 \isacommand{by}\ arith

 \end{isabelle}

 Concerning simplifier tricks, we have no need to eliminate subtraction: it

 is well-behaved.  As with the natural numbers, the simplifier can sort the

 operands of sums and products.  The name \isa{zadd_ac}\index{*zadd_ac (theorems)}

 refers to the

 associativity and commutativity theorems for integer addition, while

 \isa{zmult_ac}\index{*zmult_ac (theorems)}

 has the analogous theorems for multiplication.  The

 prefix~\isa{z} in many theorem names recalls the use of $\mathbb{Z}$ to

 denote the set of integers.

 For division and remainder,\index{division!by negative numbers}

 the treatment of negative divisors follows

 mathematical practice: the sign of the remainder follows that

 of the divisor:

 \begin{isabelle}

 0\ <\ b\ \isasymLongrightarrow \ 0\ \isasymle \ a\ mod\ b%

 \rulename{pos_mod_sign}\isanewline

 0\ <\ b\ \isasymLongrightarrow \ a\ mod\ b\ <\ b%

 \rulename{pos_mod_bound}\isanewline

 b\ <\ 0\ \isasymLongrightarrow \ a\ mod\ b\ \isasymle \ 0

 \rulename{neg_mod_sign}\isanewline

 b\ <\ 0\ \isasymLongrightarrow \ b\ <\ a\ mod\ b%

 \rulename{neg_mod_bound}

 \end{isabelle}

 ML treats negative divisors in the same way, but most computer hardware

 treats signed operands using the same rules as for multiplication.

 Many facts about quotients and remainders are provided:

 \begin{isabelle}

 (a\ +\ b)\ div\ c\ =\isanewline

 a\ div\ c\ +\ b\ div\ c\ +\ (a\ mod\ c\ +\ b\ mod\ c)\ div\ c%

 \rulename{zdiv_zadd1_eq}

 \par\smallskip

 (a\ +\ b)\ mod\ c\ =\ (a\ mod\ c\ +\ b\ mod\ c)\ mod\ c%

 \rulename{zmod_zadd1_eq}

 \end{isabelle}

 \begin{isabelle}

 (a\ *\ b)\ div\ c\ =\ a\ *\ (b\ div\ c)\ +\ a\ *\ (b\ mod\ c)\ div\ c%

 \rulename{zdiv_zmult1_eq}\isanewline

 (a\ *\ b)\ mod\ c\ =\ a\ *\ (b\ mod\ c)\ mod\ c%

 \rulename{zmod_zmult1_eq}

 \end{isabelle}

 \begin{isabelle}

 0\ <\ c\ \isasymLongrightarrow \ a\ div\ (b*c)\ =\ a\ div\ b\ div\ c%

 \rulename{zdiv_zmult2_eq}\isanewline

 0\ <\ c\ \isasymLongrightarrow \ a\ mod\ (b*c)\ =\ b*(a\ div\ b\ mod\

 c)\ +\ a\ mod\ b%

 \rulename{zmod_zmult2_eq}

 \end{isabelle}

 The last two differ from their natural number analogues by requiring

 \isa{c} to be positive.  Since division by zero yields zero, we could allow

 \isa{c} to be zero.  However, \isa{c} cannot be negative: a counterexample

 is

 $\isa{a} = 7$, $\isa{b} = 2$ and $\isa{c} = -3$, when the left-hand side of

 \isa{zdiv_zmult2_eq} is $-2$ while the right-hand side is~$-1$.%

 \index{integers|)}\index{*int (type)|)}

 Induction is less important for integers than it is for the natural numbers, but it can be valuable if the range of integers has a lower or upper bound.  There are four rules for integer induction, corresponding to the possible relations of the bound ($\geq$, $>$, $\leq$ and $<$):

 \begin{isabelle}

 \isasymlbrakk k\ \isasymle \ i;\ P\ k;\ \isasymAnd i.\ \isasymlbrakk k\ \isasymle \ i;\ P\ i\isasymrbrakk \ \isasymLongrightarrow \ P(i+1)\isasymrbrakk \ \isasymLongrightarrow \ P\ i%

 \rulename{int_ge_induct}\isanewline

 \isasymlbrakk k\ <\ i;\ P(k+1);\ \isasymAnd i.\ \isasymlbrakk k\ <\ i;\ P\ i\isasymrbrakk \ \isasymLongrightarrow \ P(i+1)\isasymrbrakk \ \isasymLongrightarrow \ P\ i%

 \rulename{int_gr_induct}\isanewline

 \isasymlbrakk i\ \isasymle \ k;\ P\ k;\ \isasymAnd i.\ \isasymlbrakk i\ \isasymle \ k;\ P\ i\isasymrbrakk \ \isasymLongrightarrow \ P(i-1)\isasymrbrakk \ \isasymLongrightarrow \ P\ i%

 \rulename{int_le_induct}\isanewline

 \isasymlbrakk i\ <\ k;\ P(k-1);\ \isasymAnd i.\ \isasymlbrakk i\ <\ k;\ P\ i\isasymrbrakk \ \isasymLongrightarrow \ P(i-1)\isasymrbrakk \ \isasymLongrightarrow \ P\ i%

 \rulename{int_less_induct}

 \end{isabelle}

 \subsection{The Type of Real Numbers, {\tt\slshape real}}

 \index{real numbers|(}\index{*real (type)|(}%

 The real numbers enjoy two significant properties that the integers lack. 

 They are

 \textbf{dense}: between every two distinct real numbers there lies another.

 This property follows from the division laws, since if $x<y$ then between

 them lies $(x+y)/2$.  The second property is that they are

 \textbf{complete}: every set of reals that is bounded above has a least

 upper bound.  Completeness distinguishes the reals from the rationals, for

 which the set $\{x\mid x^2<2\}$ has no least upper bound.  (It could only be

 $\surd2$, which is irrational.)

 The formalization of completeness is complicated; rather than

 reproducing it here, we refer you to the theory \texttt{RComplete} in

 directory \texttt{Real}.

 Density, however, is trivial to express:

 \begin{isabelle}

 x\ <\ y\ \isasymLongrightarrow \ \isasymexists r.\ x\ <\ r\ \isasymand \ r\ <\ y%

 \rulename{dense}

 \end{isabelle}

 Here is a selection of rules about the division operator.  The following

 are installed as default simplification rules in order to express

 combinations of products and quotients as rational expressions:

 \begin{isabelle}

 a\ *\ (b\ /\ c)\ =\ a\ *\ b\ /\ c

 \rulename{times_divide_eq_right}\isanewline

 b\ /\ c\ *\ a\ =\ b\ *\ a\ /\ c

 \rulename{times_divide_eq_left}\isanewline

 a\ /\ (b\ /\ c)\ =\ a\ *\ c\ /\ b

 \rulename{divide_divide_eq_right}\isanewline

 a\ /\ b\ /\ c\ =\ a\ /\ (b\ *\ c)

 \rulename{divide_divide_eq_left}

 \end{isabelle}

 Signs are extracted from quotients in the hope that complementary terms can

 then be cancelled:

 \begin{isabelle}

 -\ (a\ /\ b)\ =\ -\ a\ /\ b

 \rulename{minus_divide_left}\isanewline

 -\ (a\ /\ b)\ =\ a\ /\ -\ b

 \rulename{minus_divide_right}

 \end{isabelle}

 The following distributive law is available, but it is not installed as a

 simplification rule.

 \begin{isabelle}

 (a\ +\ b)\ /\ c\ =\ a\ /\ c\ +\ b\ /\ c%

 \rulename{add_divide_distrib}

 \end{isabelle}

 As with the other numeric types, the simplifier can sort the operands of

 addition and multiplication.  The name \isa{real_add_ac} refers to the

 associativity and commutativity theorems for addition, while similarly

 \isa{real_mult_ac} contains those properties for multiplication. 

 The absolute value function \isa{abs} is

 defined for the reals, along with many theorems such as this one about

 exponentiation:

 \begin{isabelle}

 \isasymbar a\ \isacharcircum \ n\isasymbar\ =\ 

 \isasymbar a\isasymbar \ \isacharcircum \ n

 \rulename{power_abs}

 \end{isabelle}

 Numeric literals\index{numeric literals!for type \protect\isa{real}}

 for type \isa{real} have the same syntax as those for type

 \isa{int} and only express integral values.  Fractions expressed

 using the division operator are automatically simplified to lowest terms:

 \begin{isabelle}

 \ 1.\ P\ ((3\ /\ 4)\ *\ (8\ /\ 15))\isanewline

 \isacommand{apply} simp\isanewline

 \ 1.\ P\ (2\ /\ 5)

 \end{isabelle}

 Exponentiation can express floating-point values such as

 \isa{2 * 10\isacharcircum6}, but at present no special simplification

 is performed.

 \begin{warn}

 Type \isa{real} is only available in the logic HOL-Complex, which

 is  HOL extended with a definitional development of the real and complex

 numbers.  Base your theory upon theory

 \thydx{Complex_Main}, not the usual \isa{Main}.%

 \index{real numbers|)}\index{*real (type)|)}

 Launch Isabelle using the command 

 \begin{verbatim}

 Isabelle -l HOL-Complex

 \end{verbatim}

 \end{warn}

 Also available in HOL-Complex is the

 theory \isa{Hyperreal}, which define the type \tydx{hypreal} of 

 \rmindex{non-standard reals}.  These

 \textbf{hyperreals} include infinitesimals, which represent infinitely

 small and infinitely large quantities; they facilitate proofs

 about limits, differentiation and integration~\cite{fleuriot-jcm}.  The

 development defines an infinitely large number, \isa{omega} and an

 infinitely small positive number, \isa{epsilon}.  The 

 relation $x\approx y$ means ``$x$ is infinitely close to~$y$.''

 Theory \isa{Hyperreal} also defines transcendental functions such as sine,

 cosine, exponential and logarithm --- even the versions for type

 \isa{real}, because they are defined using nonstandard limits.%

 \index{numbers|)}